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Matière et Révolution https://www.matierevolution.org/ Contribution au débat sur la philosophie dialectique du mode de formation et de transformation de la matière, de la vie, de l'homme et de la société Ce site est complémentaire de https://www.matierevolution.fr/ fr SPIP - www.spip.net Matière et Révolution http://matierevolution.org/local/cache-vignettes/L144xH69/siteon0-5aeb8-d0407.jpg?1792724566 https://www.matierevolution.org/ 69 144 Hegel's Philosophy of History - Part III http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7678 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7678 2026-01-09T08:58:26Z text/html en Robert Paris English Philosophie Hegel <p>Part III: The Roman World <br class='autobr' /> Napoleon, in a conversation which he once had with Goethe on the nature of Tragedy, expressed the opinion that its modern phase differed from the ancient, through our no longer recognizing a Destiny to which men are absolutely subject, and that Policy occupies the place of the ancient Fate [La politique est fatalité]. This therefore he thought must be used as the modern form of Destiny in Tragedy – the irresistible power of circumstances to which individuality (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique88" rel="directory">000- ENGLISH - MATTER AND REVOLUTION</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot1" rel="tag">English</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot149" rel="tag">Philosophie</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><p>Part III: The Roman World</p> <p>Napoleon, in a conversation which he once had with Goethe on the nature of Tragedy, expressed the opinion that its modern phase differed from the ancient, through our no longer recognizing a Destiny to which men are absolutely subject, and that Policy occupies the place of the ancient Fate [La politique est fatalité]. This therefore he thought must be used as the modern form of Destiny in Tragedy – the irresistible power of circumstances to which individuality must bend. Such a power is the Roman World, chosen for the very purpose of casting the moral units into bonds, as also of collecting all Deities and all Spirits into the Pantheon of Universal dominion, in order to make out of them an abstract universality of power. The distinction between the Roman and the Persian principle is exactly this – that the former stifles all vitality, while the latter allowed of its existence in the fullest measure. Through its being the aim of the State, that the social units in their moral life should be sacrificed to it, the world is sunk in melancholy: its heart is broken, and it is all over with the Natural side of Spirit, which has sunk into a feeling of unhappiness. Yet only from this feeling could arise the supersensuous, the free Spirit in Christianity.</p> <p>In the Greek principle we have seen spiritual existence in its exhilaration – its cheerfulness and enjoyment: Spirit had not yet drawn back into abstraction; it was still involved with the Natural element – the idiosyncrasy of individuals; – on which account the virtues of individuals themselves became moral works of art. Abstract universal Personality had not yet appeared, for Spirit must first develop itself to that form of abstract Universality which exercised the severe discipline over humanity now under consideration. Here, in Rome, then, we find that free universality, that abstract Freedom, which on the one hand sets an abstract state, a political constitution and power, over concrete individuality; on the other side creates a personality in opposition to that universality – the inherent freedom of the abstract Ego, which must be distinguished from individual idiosyncrasy. For Personality constitutes the fundamental condition of legal Right: it appears chiefly in the category of Property, but it is indifferent to the concrete characteristics of the living Spirit with which individuality is concerned. These two elements, which constitute Rome – political Universality on the one hand, and the abstract freedom of the individual on the other – appear, in the first instance, in the form of Subjectivity. This Subjectivity – this retreating into one's self which we observed as the corruption of the Greek Spirit – becomes here the ground on which a new side of the World's History arises. In considering the Roman World, we have not to do with a concretely spiritual life, rich in itself; but the world-historical element in it is the abstractum of Universality, and the object which is pursued with soulless and heartless severity, is mere dominion, in order to enforce that abstractum.<br class='autobr' /> In Greece, Democracy was the fundamental condition of political life, as in the East, Despotism; here we have Aristocracy of a rigid order, in a state of opposition to the people. In Greece also the Democracy was rent asunder, but only in the way of factions; in Rome it is principles that keep the entire community in a divided state – they occupy a hostile position towards, and struggle with each other: first the Aristocracy with the Kings, then the Plebs with the Aristocracy, till Democracy gets the upper hand ; then first arise factions in which originated that later aristocracy of commanding individuals which subjugated the world. It is this dualism that, properly speaking, marks Rome's inmost being.</p> <p>Erudition has regarded the Roman History from various points of view, and has adopted very different and opposing opinions: this is especially the case with the more ancient part of the history, which has been taken up by three different classes of literati – Historians, Philologists, and Jurists. The Historians hold to the grand features, and show respect for the history as such; so that we may after all see our way best under their guidance, since they allow the validity of the records in the case of leading events. It is otherwise with the Philologists, by whom generally received traditions are less regarded, and who devote more attention to small details which can be combined in various ways. These combinations gain a footing first as historical hypotheses, but soon after as established facts. To the same degree as the Philologists in their department, have the Jurists in that of Roman law, instituted the minutest examination and involved their inferences with hypothesis. The result is that the most ancient part of Roman History has been declared to be nothing but fable; so that this department of inquiry is brought entirely within the province of learned criticism, which always finds the most to do where the least is to be got for the labor. While on the one side the poetry and the myths of the Greeks are said to contain profound historical truths, and are thus transmuted into history, the Romans on the contrary have myths and poetical views affiliated upon them; and epopees are affirmed to be at the basis of what has been hitherto taken for prosaic and historical.</p> <p>With these preliminary remarks we proceed to describe the Locality.</p> <p>The Roman World has its centre in Italy; which is extremely similar to Greece, and, like it, forms a peninsula, only not so deeply indented. Within this country, the city of Rome itself formed the centre of the centre. Napoleon in his Memoirs takes up the question, which city – if Italy were independent and formed a totality – would be best adapted for its capital. Rome, Venice, and Milan may put forward claims to the honor; but it is immediately evident that none of these cities would supply a centre. Northern Italy constitutes a basin of the river Po, and is quite distinct from the body of the peninsula; Venice is connected only with Higher Italy, not with the south; Rome, on the other hand, would, perhaps, be naturally a centre for Middle and Lower Italy, but only artificially and violently for those lands which were subjected to it in Higher Italy. The Roman State rests geographically, as well as historically, on the clement of force. The locality of Italy, then, presents no natural unity – as the valley of the Nile; the unity was similar to that which Macedonia by its sovereignty gave to Greece; though Italy wanted that permeation by one spirit, which Greece possessed through equality of culture; for it was inhabited by very various races. Niebuhr has prefaced his Roman history by a profoundly erudite treatise on the peoples of Italy; but from which no connection between them and the Roman History is visible. In fact, Niebuhr's History can only be regarded as a criticism of Roman History, for it consists of a series of treatises which by no means possess the unity of history.</p> <p>We observed subjective inwardness as the general principle of the Roman World. The course of Roman History, therefore, involves the expansion of undeveloped subjectivity – inward conviction of existence – to the visibility of the real world. The principle of subjective inwardness receives positive application in the first place only from without – through the particular volition of the sovereignty, the government, etc. The development consists in the purification of inwardness to abstract personality, which gives itself reality in the existence of private property; the mutually repellent social units can then be held together only by despotic power. The general course of the Roman World may be defined as this; the transition from the inner sanctum of subjectivity to its direct opposite. The development is here not of the same kind as that in Greece – the unfolding and expanding of its own substance on the part of the principle; but it is the transition to its opposite, which latter does not appear as an element of corruption, but is demanded and posited by the principle itself. – As to the particular sections of the Roman History, the common division is that into the Monarchy, the Republic, and the Empire – as if in these forms different principles made their appearance; but the same principle – that of the Roman Spirit – underlies their development. In our division, we must rather keep in view the course of History generally. 1 he annals of every Worldhistorical people were divided above into three periods, and this statement must prove itself true in this case also. The first period comprehends the rudiments of Rome, in which the elements which are essentially opposed, still repose in calm unity; until the contrarieties have acquired strength, and the unity of the State becomes a powerful one, through that antithetical condition having been produced and maintained within it. In this vigorous condition the State directs its forces outwards – i.e., in the second period – and makes its debut on the theatre of general history; this is the noblest Period of Rome – the Punic Wars and the contact with the antecedent World-Historical people. A wider stage is opened, towards the East; the history at the epoch of this contact has been treated by the noble Polybius. The Roman Empire now acquired that world-conquering extension which paved the way for its fall. Internal distraction supervened, while the antithesis was developing itself to self-contradiction and utter incompatibility; it closes with Despotism, which marks the third period. The Roman power appears here in its pomp and splendor; but it is at the same time profoundly ruptured within itself, and the Christian Religion, which begins with the imperial dominion, receives a great extension. The third period comprises the contact of Rome with the North and the German peoples, whose turn is now come to play their part in History.</p> <p>Section I: Rome to the Time of the Second Punic War.</p> <p>Chapter I. – The Elements of the Roman Spirit</p> <p>Before we come to the Roman History, we have to consider the Elements of the Roman Spirit in general, and mention and investigate the origin of Rome with a reference to them. Rome arose outside recognised countries, viz., in an angle where three different districts met – those of the Latins, Sabines and Etruscans; it was not formed from some ancient stem, connected by natural patriarchal bonds, whose origin might be traced up to remote times (as seems to have been the case with the Persians, who, however, even then ruled a large empire); but Rome was from the very beginning, of artificial and violent, not spontaneous growth. It is related that the descendants of the Trojans, led by Æneas to Italy, founded Rome; for the connection with Asia was a much cherished tradition, and there are in Italy, France, and Germany itself (Xanten) many towns which refer their origin, or their names, to the fugitive Trojans. Livy speaks of the ancient tribes of Rome, the Ramnenses, Titienses, and Luceres. Now if we look upon these as distinct nations, and assert that they were really the elements from which Rome was formed – a view which in recent times has very often striven to obtain currency – we directly subvert the historical tradition. All historians agree that at an early period, shepherds, under the leadership of chieftains, roved about on the hills of Rome; that the first Roman community constituted itself as a predatory state; and that it was with difficulty that the scattered inhabitants of the vicinity were thus united. The details of these circumstances are also given Those predatory shepherds received every contribution to their community that chose to join them (Livy calls it a colluvies). The rabble of all the three districts between which Rome lay, was collected in the new city. The historians state that this point was very well chosen on a hill close to the river, and particularly adapted to make it an asylum for all delinquents. It is equally historical that in the newly formed state there were no women, and that the neighboring states would enter into no connubia with it: both circumstances characterize it as predatory union, with which the other states wished to have no connection. They also refused the invitation to their religious festivals; and only the Sabines – a simple agricultural people, among whom, as Livy says, prevailed a tristis atque tetrica superstitio – partly from superstition, partly from fear, presented themselves at them. The seizure of the Sabine women is also a universally received historical fact. This circumstance itself involves a very characteristic feature, viz., that Religion is used as a means for furthering the purposes of the infant State. Another method of extension was the conveying to Rome of the inhabitants of neighboring and conquered towns. At a later date there was also a voluntary migration of foreigners to Rome; as in the case of the so celebrated family of the Claudii, bringing their whole clientela. The Corinthian Demaratus, belonging to a family of consideration, had settled in Etruria; but as being an exile and a foreigner, he was little respected there, and his son, Lucumo, could no longer endure this degradation. He betook himself to Rome, says Livy, because a new people and a repentin a atque ex virtute nobilitas were to be found there. Lucumo attained, we are told, such a degree of respect, that he afterwards became king.</p> <p>It is this peculiarity in the founding of the State which must be regarded as the essential basis of the idiosyncrasy of Rome. For it directly involves the severest discipline, and self-sacrifice to the grand object of the union. A State which had first to form itself, and which is based on force, must be held together by force. It is not a moral, liberal connection, but a compulsory condition of subordination, that results from such an origin. The Roman virtus is valor; not, however, the merely personal, but that which is essentially connected with a union of associates ; which union is regarded as the supreme interest, and may be combined with lawless violence of all kinds. While the Romans formed a union of this kind, they were not, indeed, like the Lacedaemonians, engaged in an internal contest with a conquered and subjugated people; but there arose a distinction and a struggle between Patricians and Plebeians. This distinction was mythically adumbrated in the hostile brothers, Romulus and Remus. Remus was buried on the Aventine mount; this is consecrated to the evil genii, and to it are directed the Secessions of the Plebs. The question comes, then, how this distinction originated? It has been already said, that Rome was formed by robber-herdsmen, and the concourse of rabble of all sorts. At a later date, the inhabitants of captured and destroyed towns were also conveyed thither. The weaker, the poorer, the later additions of population are naturally underrated by, and in a condition of dependence upon those who originally founded the state, and those who were distinguished by valor, and also by wealth. It is not necessary, therefore, to take refuge in a hypothesis which has recently been a favorite one – that the Patricians formed a particular race.</p> <p>The dependence of the Plebeians on the Patricians is often represented as a perfectly legal relation – indeed, even a sacred one; since the Patricians had the sacra in their hands, while the plebs would have been godless, as it were, without them. The Plebeians left to the Patricians their hypocritical stuff (ad decipiendam plebem, Cic.) and cared nothing for their sacra and auguries; but in disjoining political rights from these ritual observances, and making good their claim to those rights, they were no more guilty of a presumptuous sacrilege than the Protestants, when they emancipated the political power of the State, and asserted the freedom of conscience. The light in which, as previously stated, we must regard the relation of the Patricians and Plebeians is, that those who were poor, and consequently helpless, were compelled to attach themselves to the richer and more respectable, and to seek for their patrocinium: in this relation of protection on the part of the more wealthy, the protected are called clientes. But we find very soon a fresh distinction between the plebs and the clientes. In the contentions between the Patricians and the Plebeians, the clientes held to their patroni, though belonging to the plebs as decidedly as any class. That this relation of the clientes had not the stamp of right and law is evident from the fact, that with the introduction and knowledge of the laws among all classes, the cliental relation gradually vanished; for as soon as individuals found protection in the law, the temporary necessity for it could not but cease.</p> <p>In the first predatory period of the state, every citizen was necessarily a soldier, for the state was based on war; this burden was oppressive, since every citizen was obliged to maintain himself in the field. This circumstance, therefore, gave rise to the contracting of enormous debts – the Patricians becoming the creditors of the Plebeians. With the introduction of laws, this arbitrary relation necessarily ceased; but only gradually, for the Patricians were far from being immediately inclined to release the plebs from the cliental relation; they rather strove to render it permanent. The laws of the Twelve Tables still contained much that was undefined; very much was still left to the arbitrary will of the judge – the Patricians alone being judges; the antithesis, therefore, between Patricians and Plebeians, continues till a much later period. Only by degrees do the Plebeians scale all the heights of official station, and attain those privileges which formerly belonged to the Patricians alone.</p> <p>In the life of the Greeks, although it did not any more than that of the Romans originate in the patriarchal relation, Family love and the Family tie appeared at its very commencement, and the peaceful aim of their social existence had for its necessary condition the extirpation of freebooters both by sea and land. The founders of Rome, on the contrary – Romulus and Remus – are, according to the tradition, themselves freebooters – represented as from their earliest days thrust out from the Family, and as having grown up in a state of isolation from family affection. In like manner, the first Romans are said to have got their wives, not by free courtship and reciprocated inclination, but by force. This commencement of the Roman life in savage rudeness excluding the sensibilities of natural morality, brings with it one characteristic element – harshness in respect to the family relation; a selfish harshness, which constituted the fundamental condition of Roman manners and laws, as we observe them in the sequel. We thus find family relations among the Romans not as a beautiful, free relation of love and feeling; the place of confidence is usurped by the principle of severity, dependence, and subordination. Marriage, in its strict and formal shape, bore quite the aspect of a mere contract; the wife was part of the husband's property (in manum conventio), and the marriage ceremony was based on a cocmtio, in a form such as might have been adopted on the occasion of any other purchase. The husband acquired a power over his wife, such as he had over his daughter; nor less over her property; so that everything which she gained, she gained for her husband. During the good times of the republic, the celebration of marriages included a religious ceremony – confarreatio – but which was omitted at a later period. The husband obtained not less power than by the coemtio, when he married according to the form called usiis, that is, when the wife remained in the house of her husband without having been absent a trinoctium in a year. If the husband had not married in one of the forms of the in manum conventio, the wife remained either in the power of her father, or under the guardianship of her agnates, and was free as regarded her husband. The Roman matron, therefore, obtained honor and dignity only through independence of her husband, instead of acquiring her honor through her husband and by marriage. If a husband who had married under the freer condition – that is, when the union was not consecrated by the confarreatio – wished to separate from his wife, he dismissed her without further ceremony. The relation of sons was perfectly similar: they were, on the one hand, about as dependent on the paternal power as the wife on the matrimonial; they could not possess property – it made no difference whether they filled a high office in the State or not (though the peculia castrensia, and adventitia were differently regarded) ; but on the other hand, when they were emancipated, they had no connection with their father and their family. An evidence of the degree in which the position of children was regarded as analogous to that of slaves, is presented in the imaginaria servitus (mancipium), through which emancipated children had to pass. In reference to inheritance, morality would seem to demand that children should share equally. Among the Romans, on the contrary, testamentary caprice manifests itself in its harshest form. Thus perverted and demoralized, do we here see the fundamental relations of ethics. The immoral active severity of the Romans in this private side of character, necessarily finds its counterpart in the passive severity of their political union. For the severity which the Roman experienced from the State he was compensated by a severity, identical in nature, which he was allowed to indulge towards his family – a servant on the one side, a despot on the other. This constitutes the Roman greatness, whose peculiar characteristic was stern inflexibility in the union of individuals with the State, and with its law and mandate. In order to obtain a nearer view of this Spirit, we must not merely keep in view the actions of Roman heroes, confronting the enemy as soldiers or generals, or appearing as ambassadors – since in these cases they belong, with their whole mind and thought, only to the state and its mandate, without hesitation or yielding – but pay particular attention also to the conduct of the plebs in times of revolt against the patricians. How often in insurrection and in anarchical disorder was the plebs brought back into a state of tranquillity by a mere form, and cheated of the fulfilment of its demands, righteous or unrighteous! How often was a Dictator, e.g., chosen by the senate, when there was neither war nor danger from an enemy, in order to get the plebeians into the army, and to bind them to strict obedience by the military oath! It took Licinius ten years to carry laws favorable to the plebs; the latter allowed itself to be kept back by the mere formality of the veto on the part of other tribunes, and still more patiently did it wait for the long-delayed execution of these laws. It may be asked: By what were such a disposition and character produced? Produced it cannot be, but it is essentially latent in the origination of the State from that primal robber-community, as also in the idiosyncrasy of the people who composed it, and lastly, in that phase of the World-Spirit which was just ready for development. The elements of the Roman people were Etruscan, Latin and Sabine; these must have contained an inborn natural adaptation to produce the Roman Spirit. Of the spirit, the character, and the life of the ancient Italian peoples we know very little – thanks to the non-intelligent character of Roman historiography! – and that little, for the most part, from the Greek writers on Roman history. But of the general character of the Romans we may say that, in contrast with that primeval wild poetry and transmutation of the finite, which we observe in the East – in contrast with the beautiful, harmonious poetry and well-balanced freedom of Spirit among the Greeks – here, among the Romans the prose of life makes its appearance – the self-consciousness of finiteness – the abstraction of the Understanding and a rigorous principle of personality, which even in the Family does not expand itself to natural morality, but remains the unfeeling non-spiritual unit, and recognizes the uniting bond of the several social units only in abstract universality.</p> <p>This extreme prose of the Spirit we find in Etruscan art, which though technically perfect and so far true to nature, has nothing of Greek Ideality and Beauty: we also observe it in the development of Roman Law and in the Roman religion. To the constrained, non-spiritual, and unfeeling intelligence of the Roman world we owe the origin and the development of positive law. For we saw above, how in the East, relations in their very nature belonging to the sphere of outward or inward morality, were made legal mandates; even among the Greeks, morality was at the same time juristic right, and on that very account the constitution was entirely dependent on morals and disposition, and had not yet a fixity of principle within it, to counterbalance the mutability of men's inner life and individual subjectivity. The Romans then completed this important separation, and discovered a principle of right, which is external – i.e. one not dependent on disposition and sentiment. While they have thus bestowed upon us a valuable gift, in point of form, we can use and enjoy it without becoming victims to that sterile Understanding – without regarding it as the ne plus ultra of Wisdom and Reason. They were its victims, living beneath its sway; but they thereby secured for others Freedom of Spirit – viz., that inward Freedom which has consequently become emancipated from the sphere of the Limited and the External. Spirit, Soul, Disposition, Religion have now no longer to fear being involved with that abstract juristical Understanding. Art too has its external side; when in Art the mechanical side has been brought to perfection, Free Art can arise and display itself. But those must be pitied who knew of nothing but that mechanical side, and desired nothing further; as also those who, when Art has arisen, still regard the Mechanical as the highest. We see the Romans thus bound up in that abstract understanding which pertains to finiteness. This is their highest characteristic, consequently also their highest consciousness, in Religion. In fact, constraint was the religion of the Romans; among the Greeks, on the contrary, it was the cheerfulness of free fantasy. We are accustomed to regard Greek and Roman religion as the same, and use the names Jupiter, Minerva, etc. as Roman deities, often without distinguishing them from those of Greeks. This is admissible inasmuch as the Greek divinities were more or less introduced among the Romans; but as the Egyptian religion is by no means to be regarded as identical with the Greek, merely because Herodotus and the Greeks form to themselves an idea of the Egyptian divinities under the names “Latona,” “Pallas,” etc., so neither must the Roman be confounded with the Greek. We have said that in the Greek religion the thrill of awe suggested by Nature was fully developed to something Spiritual – to a free conception, a spiritual form of fancy – that the Greek Spirit did not remain in the condition of inward fear, but proceeded to make the relation borne to man by Nature, a relation of freedom and cheerfulness. The Romans, on the contrary, remained satisfied with a dull, stupid subjectivity; consequently, the external was only an Object – something alien, something hidden. The Roman spirit which thus remained involved in subjectivity, came into a relation of constraint and dependence, to which the origin of the word “re-ligio” (lig-are) points. The Roman had always to do with something secret; in everything he believed in and sought for something concealed; and while in the Greek religion everything is open and clear, present to sense and contemplation – not pertaining to a future world, but something friendly, and of this world – among the Romans everything exhibits itself as mysterious, duplicate: they saw in the object first itself, and then that which lies concealed in it: their history is pervaded by this duplicate mode of viewing phenomena. The city of Rome had besides its proper name another secret one, known only to a few. It is believed by some to have been “Valentia,” the Latin translation of “Roma”; others think it was “Amor” (“Roma” read backwards). Romulus, the founder of the State, had also another, a sacred name – “Quirinus” – by which title he was worshipped: the Romans too were also called Quirites. (This name is connected with the term “curia”: in tracing its etymology the name of the Sabine town “Cures,” has been had recourse to.) Among the Romans the religious thrill of awe remained undeveloped; it was shut up to the mere subjective certainty of its own existence. Consciousness has therefore given itself no spiritual objectivity – has not elevated itself to the theoretical contemplation of the eternally divine nature, and to freedom in that contemplation; it has gained no religious substantiality for itself from Spirit. The bare subjectivity of conscience is characteristic of the Roman in all that he does and undertakes – in his covenants, political relations, obligations, family relations, etc.; and all these relations receive thereby not merely a legal sanction, but as it were a solemnity analogous to that of an oath. The infinite number of ceremonies at the comitia, on assuming offices, etc., are expressions and declarations that concern this firm bond. Everywhere the sacra play a very important part. Transactions, naturally the most alien to constraint, became a sacrum, and were petrified, as it were, into that. To this category belongs, e.g., in strict marriages, the confarreatio, and the auguries and auspices generally. The knowledge of these sacra is utterly uninteresting and wearisome, affording fresh material for learned research as to whether they are of Etruscan, Sabine, or other origin. On their account the Roman people have been regarded as extremely pious, both in positive and negative observances; though it is ridiculous to hear recent writers speak with unction and respect of these sacra. The Patricians were especially fond of them; they have therefore been elevated in the judgment of some, to the dignity of sacerdotal families, and regarded as the sacred gentes – the possessors and conservators of Roman religion: the plebeians then become the godless element. On this head what is pertinent has already been said. The ancient kings were at the same time also reges sacrorum. After the royal dignity had been done away with, there still remained a Rex Sacrorum; but he, like all the other priests, was subject to the Pontifex Maximus, who presided over all the “sacra,” and gave them such a rigidity and fixity as enabled the patricians to maintain their religious power so long.</p> <p>But the essential point in pious feeling is the subject matter with which it occupies itself – though it is often asserted, on the contrary, in modern times, that if pious feelings exist, it is a matter of indifference what object occupies them. It has been already remarked of the Romans, that their religious subjectivity did not expand into a free spiritual and moral comprehensiveness of being. It can be said that their piety did not develop itself into religion; for it remained essentially formal, and this formalism took its real side from another quarter. From the very definition given, it follows that it can only be of a finite, unhallowed order, since it arose outside the secret sanctum of religion. The chief characteristic of Roman Religion is therefore a hard and dry contemplation of certain voluntary aims, which they regard as existing absolutely in their divinities, and whose accomplishment they desire of them as embodying absolute power, These purposes constitute that for the sake of which they worship the gods, and by which, in a constrained, limited way, they are bound to their deities. The Roman religion is therefore the entirely prosaic one of narrow aspirations, expediency, profit. The divinities peculiar to them are entirely prosaic; they are conditions [of mind or body], sensations, or useful arts, to which their dry fancy, having elevated them to independent power, gave objectivity; they are partly abstractions, which could only become frigid allegories – partly conditions of being which appear as bringing advantage or injury, and which were presented as objects of worship in their original bare and limited form. We can but briefly notice a few examples. The Romans worshipped “Pax,” “Tranquillitas,” “Vacuna” (Repose), “Angeronia” (Sorrow and Grief), as divinities; they consecrated altars to the Plague, to Hunger, to Mildew (Robigo), to Fever, and to the Dea Cloacina. Juno appears among the Romans not merely as “Lucina,” the obstetric goddess, but also as “Juno Ossipagina,” the divinity who forms the bones of the child, and as “Juno Unxia,” who anoints the hinges of the doors at marriages (a matter which was also reckoned among the “sacra”). How little have these prosaic conceptions in common with the beauty of the spiritual powers and deities of the Greeks! On the other hand, Jupiter as “Jupiter Capitolinus” represents the generic essence of the Roman Empire, which is also personified in the divinities “Roma” and “Fortuna Publica.”</p> <p>It was the Romans especially who introduced the practice of not merely supplicating the gods in time of need, and celebrating “lectisternia,” but of also making solemn promises and vows to them. For help in difficulty they sent even into foreign countries, and imported foreign divinities and rites. The introduction of the gods and most of the Roman temples thus arose from necessity – from a vow of some kind, and an obligatory, not disinterested acknowledgment of favors. The Greeks on the contrary erected and instituted their beautiful temples, and statues, and rites, from love to beauty and divinity for their own sake.</p> <p>Only one side of the Roman religion exhibits something attractive, and that is the festivals, which bear a relation to country life, and whose observance was transmitted from the earliest times. The idea of the Saturnian time is partly their basis – the conception of a state of things antecedent to and beyond the limits of civil society and political combination; but their import is partly taken from Nature generally – the Sun, the course of the year, the seasons, months, etc., (with astronomical intimations) – partly from the particular aspects of the course of Nature, as bearing upon pastoral and agricultural life. There were festivals of sowing and harvesting and of the seasons; the principal was that of the Saturnalia, etc. In this aspect there appears much that is naive and ingenuous in the tradition. Yet this series of rites, on the whole, presents a very limited and prosaic appearance; deeper views of the great powers of nature and their generic processes are not deducible from them; for they are entirely directed to external vulgar advantage, and the merriment they occasioned, degenerated into a buffoonery unrelieved by intellect. While among the Greeks their tragic art developed itself from similar rudiments, it is on the other hand remarkable that among the Romans the scurrilous dances and songs connected with the rural festivals were kept up till the latest periods without any advance from this naive but rude form to anything really artistic.</p> <p>It has already been said that the Romans adopted the Greek Gods, (the mythology of the Roman poets is entirely derived from the Greeks); but the worship of these beautiful gods of the imagination appears to have been among them of a very cold and superficial order. Their talk of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva sounds like a mere theatrical mention of them. The Greeks made their Pantheon the embodiment of a rich intellectual material, and adorned it with bright fancies; it was to them an object calling forth continual invention and exciting thoughtful reflection; and an extensive, nay inexhaustible, treasure has thus been created for sentiment, feeling and thought in their mythology. The Spirit of the Romans did not indulge and delight itself in that play of a thoughtful fancy; the Greek mythology appears lifeless and exotic in their hands. Among the Roman poets – especially Virgil – the introduction of the gods is the product of a frigid Understanding and of imitation. The gods are used in these poems as machinery, and in a merely superficial way; regarded much in the same way as in our didactic treatises on the belleslettres, where among other directions we find one relating to the use of such/machinery in epics – in order to produce astonishment.</p> <p>The Romans were as essentially different from the Greeks in respect to their public games. In these the Romans were, properly speaking, only spectators. The mimetic and theatrical representation, the dancing, foot-racing and wrestling, they left to manumitted slaves, gladiators, or criminals condemned to death. Nero's deepest degradation was his appearing on a public stage as a singer, lyrist and combatant. As the Romans were only spectators, these diversions were something foreign to them; they did not enter into them with their whole souls. With increasing luxury the taste for the baiting of beasts and men became particularly keen. Hundreds of bears, lions, tigers, elephants, crocodiles, and ostriches, were produced, and slaughtered for mere amusement. A body consisting of hundreds, nay thousands of gladiators, when entering the amphitheatre at a certain festival to engage in a sham sea-fight, addressed the Emperor with the words: “Those who are devoted to death salute thee,” to excite some compassion. In vain! the whole were devoted to mutual slaughter. In place of human sufferings in the depths of the soul and spirit, occasioned by the contradictions of life, and which find their solution in Destiny, the Romans instituted a cruel reality of corporeal sufferings: blood in streams, the rattle in the throat which signals death, and the expiring gasp were the scenes that delighted them. – This cold negativity of naked murder exhibits at the same time that murder of all spiritual objective aim which had taken place in the soul. I need only mention, in addition, the auguries, auspices, and Sibylline books, to remind you how fettered the Romans were by superstitions of all kinds, and how they pursued exclusively their own aims in all the observances in question. The entrails of beasts, flashes of lightning, the flight of birds, the Sibylline dicta determined the administration and projects of the State. All this was in the hands of the patricians, who consciously made use of it as a mere outward [non-spiritual, secular] means of constraint to further their own ends and oppress the people.</p> <p>The distinct elements of Roman religion are, according to what has been said, subjective religiosity and a ritualism having for its object purely superficial external aims. Secular aims are left entirely free, instead of being limited by religion – in fact they are rather justified by it. The Romans are invariably pious, whatever may be the substantial character of their actions. But as the sacred principle here is nothing but an empty form, it is exactly of such a kind that it can be an instrument in the power of the devotee; it is taken possession of by the individual, who seeks his private objects and interests; whereas the truly Divine possesses on the contrary a concrete power in itself. But where there is only a powerless form, the individual – the Will, possessing an independent concreteness able to make that form its own, and render it subservient to its views – stands above it. This happened in Rome on the part of the patricians. The possession of sovereignty by the patricians is thereby made firm, sacred, incommunicable, peculiar: the administration of government, and political privileges, receive the character of hallowed private property. There does not exist therefore a substantial national unity – not that beautiful and moral necessity of united life in the Polis; but every “gens” is itself firm, stern, having its own Penates and sacra; each has it own political character, which it always preserves: strict, aristocratic severity distinguished the Claudii; benevolence towards the people, the Valerii; nobleness of spirit, the Cornelii. Separation and limitation were extended even to marriage, for the connubia of patricians with plebeians were deemed profane. But in that very subjectivity of religion we find also the principle of arbitrariness: and while on the one hand we have arbitrary choice invoking religion to bolster up private possession, we have on the other hand the revolt of arbitrary choice against religion. For the same order of things can, on the one side, be regarded as privileged by its religious form, and on the other side wear the aspect of being merely a matter of choice – of arbitrary volition on the part of man. When the time was come for it to be degraded to the rank of a mere form, it was necessarily known and treated as a form – trodden under foot – represented as formalism. – The inequality which enters into the domain of sacred things forms the transition from religion to the bare reality of political life. The consecrated inequality of will and of private property constitutes the fundamental condition of the change. The Roman principle admits of aristocracy alone as the constitution proper to it, but which directly manifests itself only in an antithetical form – internal inequality. Only from necessity and the pressure of adverse circumstances is this contradiction momentarily smoothed over; for it involves a duplicate power, the sternness and malevolent isolation of whose components can only be mastered and bound together by a still greater sternness, into a unity maintained by force.</p> <p>Chapter II. – The History of Rome to the Second Punic War</p> <p>In the first period, several successive stages display their characteristic varieties. The Roman State here exhibits its first phase of growth, under Kings; then it receives a republican constitution, at whose head stand Consuls. The struggle between patricians and plebeians begins; and after this has been set at rest by the concession of the plebeian demands, there ensues a state of contentment in the internal affairs of Rome, and it acquires strength to combat victoriously with the nation that preceded it on the stage of general history. As regards the accounts of the first Roman kings, every datum has met with flat contradiction as the result of criticism; but it is going too far to deny them all credibility. Seven kings in all, are mentioned by tradition; and even the “Higher Criticism” is obliged to recognize the last links in the series as perfectly historical. Romulus is called the founder of this union of freebooters; he organized it into a military state. Although the traditions respecting him appear fabulous, they only contain what is in accordance with the Roman Spirit as above described. To the second king, Numa, is ascribed the introduction of the religious ceremonies. This trait is very remarkable from its implying that religion was introduced later than political union, while among other peoples religious traditions make their appearance in the remotest periods and before all civil institutions. The king was at the same time a priest (rex is referred by etymologists to rexein – to sacrifice. As is the case with states generally, the Political was at first united with the Sacerdotal, and a theocratical state of things prevailed. The King stood here at the head of those who enjoyed privileges in virtue of the sacra.</p> <p>The separation of the distinguished and powerful citizens as senators and patricians took place as early as the first kings. Romulus is said to have appointed 100 patres, respecting which however the Higher Criticism is sceptical. In religion, arbitrary ceremonies – the sacra – became fixed marks of distinction, and peculiarities of the gentes and orders. The internal organization of the State was gradually realized. Livy says that as Numa established all divine matters, so Servius Tullius introduced the different Classes, and the Census, according to which the share of each citizen in the administration of public affairs was determined. The patricians were discontented with this scheme, especially because Servius Tullius abolished a part of the debts owed by the plebeians, and gave public lands to the poorer citizens, which made them possessors of landed property. He divided the people into six classes, of which the first together with the knights formed ninety-eight centuries, the inferior classes proportionately fewer. Thus, as they voted by centuries, the class first in rank had also the greatest weight in the State. It appears that previously the patricians had the power exclusively in their hands, but that after Servius's division they had merely a preponderance; which explains their discontent with his institutions. With Servius the history becomes more distinct; and under him and his predecessor, the elder Tarquinius, traces of prosperity are exhibited. Niebuhr is surprised that according to Dionysius and Livy, the most ancient constitution was democratic, inasmuch as the vote of every citizen had equal weight in the assembly of the people. But Livy only says that Servius abolished the suffragium viritim. Now in the comitia curiata – the cliental relation, which absorbed the plebs, extending to all – the patricians alone had a vote, and populus denoted at that time only the patricians. Dionysius therefore does not contradict himself, when he says that the constitution according to the laws of Romulus was strictly aristocratic. Almost all the Kings were foreigners – a circumstance very characteristic of the origin of Rome. Numa, who succeeded the founder of Rome, was according to the tradition, one of the Sabines – a people which under the reign of Romulus, led by Tatius, is said to have settled on one of the Roman hills. At a later date however the Sabine country appears as a region entirely separated from the Roman State. Numa was followed by Tullus Hostilius, and the very name of this king points to his foreign origin. Ancus Martius, the fourth king, was the grandson of Numa. Tarquinius Priscus sprang from a Corinthian family, as we had occasion to observe above. Servius Tullius was from Corniculum, a conquered Latin town; Tarquinius Superbus was descended from the elder Tarquinius. Under this last king Rome reached a high degree of prosperity: even at so early a period as this, a commercial treaty is said to have been concluded with the Carthaginians; and to be disposed to reject this as mythical would imply forgetfulness of the connection which Rome had, even at that time, with the Etrurians and other bordering peoples whose prosperity depended on trade and maritime pursuits. The Romans were probably even then acquainted with the art of writing, and already possessed that clearsighted comprehension which was their remarkable characteristic, and which led to that perspicuous historical composition for which they are famous. In the growth of the inner life of the state, the power of the Patricians had been much reduced; and the kings often courted the support of the people – as we see was frequently the case in the mediaeval history of Europe – in order to steal a march upon the Patricians. We have already observed this in Servius Tullius. The last king, Tarquinius Superbus, consulted the senate but little in state affairs; he also neglected to supply the place of its deceased members, and acted in every respect as if he aimed at its utter dissolution. Then ensued a state of political excitement which only needed an occasion to break out into open revolt. An insult to the honor of a matron – the invasion of that sanctum sanctorum – by the son of the king, supplied such an occasion. The kings were banished in the year 244 of the City and 510 of the Christian Era (that is, if the building of Rome is to be dated 753 B.C.) and the royal dignity abolished forever. The Kings were expelled by the patricians, not by the plebeians ; if therefore the patricians are to be regarded as possessed of “divine right” as being a sacred race, it is worthy of note that we find them here contravening such legitimation; for the King was their High Priest. We observe on this occasion with what dignity the sanctity of marriage was invested in the eyes of the Romans. The principle of subjectivity and piety (pudor) was with them the religious and guarded element; and its violation becomes the occasion of the expulsion of the Kings, and later on of the Decemvirs too. We find monogamy therefore also looked upon by the Romans as an understood thing. It was not introduced by an express law; we have nothing but an incidental testimony in the Institutes, where it is said that marriages under certain conditions of relationship are not allowable, because a man may not have two wives. It is not until the reign of Diocletian that we find a law expressly determining that no one belonging to the Roman empire may have two wives, “since according to a pretorian edict also, infamy attaches to such a condition” (cum etiam in edicto praetoris hujusmodi viri infamia notati sunt). Monogamy therefore is regarded as naturally valid, and is based on the principle of subjectivity. – Lastly, we must also observe that royalty was not abrogated here as in Greece by suicidal destruction on the part of the royal races, but was exterminated in hate. The King, himself the chief priest, had been guilty of the grossest profanation; the principle of subjectivity revolted against the deed, and the patricians, thereby elevated to a sense of independence, threw off the yoke of royalty. Possessed by the same feeling, the plebs at a later date rose against the patricians, and the Latins and the Allies against the Romans; until the equality of the social units was restored through the whole Roman dominion (a multitude of slaves, too, being emancipated) and they were held together by simple Despotism. Livy remarks that Brutus hit upon the right epoch for the expulsion of the kings, for that if it had taken place earlier, the state would have suffered dissolution. What would have happened, he asks, if this homeless crowd had been liberated earlier, when living together had not yet produced a mutual conciliation of dispositions? – The constitution now became in name republican. If we look at the matter more closely it is evident (Livy ii. 1) that no other essential change took place than the transference of the power which was previously permanent in the King, to two annual Consuls. These two, equal in power, managed military and judicial as well as administrative business; for praetors, as supreme judges, do not appear till a later date. At first all authority remained in the hands of the consuls; and at the beginning of the republic, externally and internally, the state was in evil plight. In the Roman history a period occurs as troubled as that in the Greek which followed the extinction of the dynasties. The Romans had first to sustain a severe conflict with their expelled King, who had sought and found help from the Etrurians. In the war against Porsena the Romans lost all their conquests, and even their independence : they were compelled to lay down their arms and to give hostages; according to an expression of Tacitus (Hist. 3, 72) it seems as if Porsena had even taken Rome. Soon after the expulsion of the Kings we have the contest between the patricians and plebeians; for the abolition of royalty had taken place exclusively to the advantage of the aristocracy, to which the royal power was transferred, while the plebs lost the protection which the Kings had afforded it. All magisterial and juridical power, and all property in land was at this time in the hands of the patricians; while the people, continually dragged out to war, could not employ themselves in peaceful occupations: handicrafts could not flourish, and the only acquisition the plebeians could make was their share in the booty. The patricians had their territory and soil cultivated by slaves, and assigned some of their land to their clients, who on condition of paying taxes and contributions – as tenant cultivators, therefore – had the usufruct of it. This relation, on account of the form in which the dues were paid by the Clientes, was very similar to vassalage: they were obliged to give contributions towards the marriage of the daughters of the Patronus, to ransom him or his sons when in captivity, to assist them in obtaining magisterial offices, and to make up the losses sustained in suits at law. The administration of justice was likewise in the hands of the patricians, and that without the limitations of definite and written laws; a desideratum which at a later period the Decemvirs were created to supply. All the power of government belonged moreover to the patricians, for they were in possession of all offices – first of the consulship, afterwards of the military tribuneship and censorship (instituted A.U.C. 311) – by which the actual administration of government as likewise the oversight of it, was left to them alone. Lastly, it was the patricians who constituted the Senate. The question as to how that body was recruited appears very important. But in this matter no systematic plan was followed. Romulus is said to have founded the senate, consisting then of one hundred members; the succeeding kings increased this number, and Tarquinius Priscus fixed it at three hundred. Junius Brutus restored the senate, which had very much fallen away, de novo. In after times it would appear that the censors and sometimes the dictators filled up the vacant places in the senate. In the second Punic War, A.U.C. 538, a dictator was chosen, who nominated one hundred and seventyseven new senators: he selected those who had been invested with curule dignities, the plebeian Ædiles, Tribunes of the People and Quaestors, citizens who had gained spolia opima or the corona civica. Under Caesar the number of the senators was raised to eight hundred; Augustus reduced it to six hundred. It has been regarded as great negligence on the part of the Roman historians, that they give us so little information respecting the composition and redintegration of the senate. But this point which appears to us to be invested with infinite importance, was not of so much moment to the Romans at large; they did not attach so much weight to formal arrangements, for their principal concern was, how the government was conducted. How in fact can we suppose the constitutional rights of the ancient Romans to have been so well defined, and that at a time which is even regarded as mythical, and its traditionary history as epical? The people were in some such oppressed condition as, e.g. the Irish were a few years ago in the British Isles, while they remained at the same time entirely excluded from the government. Often they revolted and made a secession from the city. Sometimes they also refused military service; yet it always remains a very striking fact that the senate could so long resist superior numbers irritated by oppression and practised in war; for the main struggle lasted for more than a hundred years. In the fact that the people could so long be kept in check is manifested its respect for legal order and the sacra. But of necessity the plebeians at last secured their righteous demands, and their debts were often remitted. The severity of the patricians their creditors, the debts due to whom they had to discharge by slave-work, drove the plebs to revolts. At first it demanded and received only what it had already enjoyed under the kings – landed property and protection against the powerful. It received assignments of land, and Tribunes of the People – functionaries that is to say, who had the power to put a veto on every decree of the senate. When this office commenced, the number of tribunes was limited to two: later there were ten of them; which however was rather injurious to the plebs, since all that the senate had to do was to gain over one of the tribunes, in order to thwart the purpose of all the rest by his single opposition. The plebs obtained at the same time the provocatio ad populum: that is, in every case of magisterial oppression, the condemned person might appeal to the decision of the people – a privilege of infinite importance to the plebs, and which especially irritated the patricians. At the repeated desire of the people the Decemviri were nominated – the Tribunate of the People being suspended – to supply the desideratum of a determinate legislation; they perverted, as is well known, their unlimited power to tyranny; and were driven from power on an occasion entailing similar disgrace to that which led to the punishment of the Kings. The dependence of the clientela was in the meantime weakened; after the decemviral epoch the clientes are less and less prominent and are merged in the plebs, which adopts resolutions (plebiscita); the senate by itself could only issue senatus consulta, and the tribunes, as well as the senate, could now impede the comitia and elections. By degrees the plebeians effected their admissibility to all dignities and offices; but at first a plebeian consul, aedile, censor, etc., was not equal to the patrician one, on account of the sacra which the latter kept in his hands; and a long time intervened after this concession before a plebeian actually became a consul. It was the tribunus plebis, Licinius, who established the whole cycle of these political arrangements – in the second half of the fourth century, A.U.C. 387. It was he also who chiefly commenced the agitation for the lex agraria, respecting which so much has been written and debated among the learned of the day. The agitators for this law excited during every period very great commotions in Rome. The plebeians were practically excluded from almost all the landed property, and the object of the Agrarian Laws was to provide lands for them – partly in the neighborhood of Rome, partly in the conquered districts, to which colonies were to be then led out. In the time of the Republic we frequently see military leaders assigning lands to the people; but in every case they were accused of striving after royalty, because it was the kings who had exalted the plebs. The Agrarian Law required that no citizen should possess more than five hundred jugera: the patricians were consequently obliged to surrender a large part of their property. Niebuhr in particular has undertaken extensive researches respecting the agrarian laws, and has conceived himself to have made great and important discoveries: he says, viz. that an infringement of the sacred right of property was never thought of, but that the state had only assigned a portion of the public lands for the use of the plebs, having always had the right of disposing of them as its own property. I only remark in passing that Hegewisch had made this discovery before Niebuhr, and that Niebuhr derived the particular data on which his assertion rests from Appian and Plutarch; that is from Greek authors, respecting whom he himself allows that we should have recourse to them only in an extreme case. How often does Livy, as well as Cicero and others, speak of the Agrarian laws, while nothing definite can be inferred from their statements! – This is another proof of the inaccuracy of the Roman historians. The whole affair ends in nothing but a useless question of jurisprudence. The land which the patricians had taken into possession or in which colonies settled, was originally public land; but it also certainly belonged to those in possession, and our information is not at all promoted by the assertion that it always remained public land. This discovery of Niebuhr's turns upon a very immaterial distinction, existing perhaps in his ideas, but not in reality. – The Licinian law was indeed carried, but soon transgressed and utterly disregarded. Licinius Stolo himself, who had first “agitated” for the law, was punished because he possessed a larger property in land than was allowed, and the patricians opposed the execution of the law with the greatest obstinacy. We must here call especial attention to the distinction which exists between the Roman, the Greek, and our own circumstances. Our civil society rests on other principles, and in it such measures are not necessary. Spartans and Athenians, who had not arrived at such an abstract idea of the State as was so tenaciously held by the Romans, did not trouble themselves with abstract rights, but simply desired that the citizens should have the means of subsistence; and they required of the state that it should take care that such should be the case. This is the chief point in the first period of Roman History – that the plebs attained the right of being eligible to the higher political offices, and that by a share which they too managed to obtain in the land and soil, the means of subsistence were assured to the citizens.</p> <p>By this union of the patriciate and the plebs, Rome first attained true internal consistency ; and only after this had been realized could the Roman power develop itself externally. A period of satisfied absorption in the common interest ensues, and the citizens are weary of internal struggles. When after civil discords nations direct their energies outward, they appear in their greatest strength; for the previous excitement continues, and no longer having its object within, seeks for it without. This direction given to the Roman energies was able for a moment to conceal the defect of that union; equilibrium was restored, but without an essential centre of unity and support. The contradiction that existed could not but break out again fearfully at a later period; but previously to this time the greatness of Rome had to display itself in war and the conquest of the world. The power, the wealth, the glory derived from these wars, as also the difficulties to which they led, kept the Romans together as regards the internal affairs of the state. Their courage and discipline secured their victory. As compared with the Greek or Macedonian, the Roman art of war has special peculiarities. The strength of the phalanx lay in its mass and in its massive character. The Roman legions also present a close array, but they had at the same time an articulated organization: they united the two extremes of massiveness on the one hand, and of dispersion into light troops on the other hand: they held firmly together, while at the same time they were capable of ready expansion. Archers and slingers preceded the main body of the Roman army when they attacked the enemy – afterwards leaving the decision to the sword.</p> <p>It would be a wearisome task to pursue the wars of the Romans in Italy; partly because they are in themselves unimportant – even the often empty rhetoric of the generals in Livy cannot very much increase the interest – partly on account of the unintelligent character of the Roman annalists, in whose pages we see the Romans carrying on war only with “enemies” without learning anything further of their individuality – e.g., the Etruscans, the Samnites, the Ligurians, with whom they carried on wars during many hundred years. – It is singular in regard to these transactions that the Romans, who have the justification conceded by World- History on their side, should also claim for themselves the minor justification in respect to manifestoes and treaties on occasion of minor infringements of them, and maintain it as it were after the fashion of advocates. But in political complications of this kind, either party may take offence at the conduct of the other, if it pleases, and deems it expedient to be offended. – The Romans had long and severe contests to maintain with the Samnites, the Etruscans, the Gauls, the Marsi, the Umbrians and the Bruttii, before they could make themselves masters of the whole of Italy. Their dominion was extended thence in a southerly direction; they gained a secure footing in Sicily, where the Carthaginians had long carried on war; then they extended their power towards the west: from Sardinia and Corsica they went to Spain. They thus soon came into frequent contact with the Carthaginians, and were obliged to form a naval power in opposition to them. This transition was easier in ancient times than it would perhaps be now, when long practice and superior knowledge are required for maritime service. The mode of warfare at sea was not very different from that on land. We have thus reached the end of the first epoch of Roman History, in which the Romans by their retail military transactions had become capitalists in a strength proper to themselves, and with which they were to appear on the theatre of the world. The Roman dominion was, on the whole, not yet very greatly extended: only a few colonies had settled on the other side of the Po, and on the south a considerable power confronted that of Rome. It was the Second Punic War, therefore, that gave the impulse to its terrible collision with the most powerful states of the time; through it the Romans came into contact with Macedonia, Asia, Syria, and subsequently also with Egypt. Italy and Rome remained the centre of their great far-stretching empire, but this centre was, as already remarked, not the less an artificial, forced, and compulsory one. This grand period of the contact of Rome with other states, and of the manifold complications thence arising, has been depicted by the noble Achaean, Polybius, whose fate it was to observe the fall of his country through the disgraceful passions of the Greeks and the baseness and inexorable persistency of the Romans.</p> <p>Section II: Rome from the Second Punic War to the Emperors</p> <p>The second period, according to our division, begins with the Second Punic War, that epoch which decided and stamped a character upon Roman dominion. In the first Punic War the Romans had shown that they had become a match for the mighty Carthage, which possessed a great part of the coast of Africa and southern Spain, and had gained a firm footing in Sicily and Sardinia. The second Punic War laid the might of Carthage prostrate in the dust. The proper element of that state was the sea; but it had no original territory, formed no nation, had no national army; its hosts were composed of the troops of subjugated and allied peoples. In spite of this, the great Hannibal with such a host, formed from the most diverse nations, brought Rome near to destruction. Without any support he maintained his position in Italy for sixteen years against Roman patience and perseverance; during which time however the Scipios conquered Spain and entered into alliances with the princes of Africa. Hannibal was at last compelled to hasten to the assistance of his hard-pressed country; he lost the battle of Zatna in the year 552 A.U.C. and after six and thirty years revisited his paternal city, to which he was now obliged to offer pacific counsels. The second Punic War thus eventually established the undisputed power of Rome over Carthage; it occasioned the hostile collision of the Romans with the king of Macedonia, who was conquered five years later. Now Antiochus, the king of Syria, is involved in the melee. He opposed a huge power to the Romans, was beaten at Thermopylae and Magnesia, and was compelled to surrender to the Romans Asia Minor as far as the Taurus. After the conquest of Macedonia both that country and Greece were declared free by the Romans – a declaration whose meaning we have already investigated, in treating of the preceding Historical nation. It was not till this time that the Third Punic War commenced, for Carthage had once more raised its head and excited the jealousy of the Romans. After long resistance it was taken and laid in ashes. Nor could the Achaean league now long maintain itself in the face of Roman ambition: the Romans were eager for war, destroyed Corinth in the same year as Carthage, and made Greece a province. The fall of Carthage and the subjugation of Greece were the central points from which the Romans gave its vast extent to their sovereignty.</p> <p>Rome seemed now to have attained perfect security; no external power confronted it: she was the mistress of the Mediterranean – that is of the media terra of all civilization. In this period of victory, its morally great and fortunate personages, especially the Scipios, attract our attention. They were morally fortunate – although the greatest of the Scipios met with an end outwardly unfortunate – because they devoted their energies to their country during a period when it enjoyed a sound and unimpaired condition. But after the feeling of patriotism – the dominant instinct of Rome – had been satisfied, destruction immediately invades the state regarded en masse; the grandeur of individual character becomes stronger in intensity, and more vigorous in the use of means, on account of contrasting circumstances. We see the internal contradiction of Rome now beginning to manifest itself in another form; and the epoch which concludes the second period is also the second mediation of that contradiction. We observed that contradiction previously in the struggle of the patricians against the plebeians: now it assumes the form of private interest, contravening patriotic sentiment; and respect for the state no longer holds these opposites in the necessary equipoise. Rather, we observe now side by side with wars for conquest, plunder and glory, the fearful spectacle of civil discords in Rome, and intestine wars. There does not follow, as among the Greeks after the Median wars, a period of brilliant splendor in culture, art and science, in which Spirit enjoys inwardly and ideally that which it had previously achieved in the world of action. If inward satisfaction was to follow the period of that external Prosperity in war, the principle of Roman life must be more concrete, But if there were such a concrete life to evolve as an object of consciousness from the depths of their souls by imagination and thought, what would it have been! Their chief spectacles were triumphs, the treasures gained in war, and captives from all nations, unsparingly subjected to the yoke of abstract sovereignty. The concrete element, which the Romans actually find within themselves, is only this unspiritual unity, and any definite thought or feeling of a non-abstract kind, can lie only in the idiosyncrasy of individuals. The tension of virtue is now relaxed, because the danger is past. At the time of the first Punic War, necessity united the hearts of all for the saving of Rome. In the following wars too, with Macedonia, Syria, and the Gauls in Upper Italy, the existence of the entire state was still concerned. But after the danger from Carthage and Macedon was over, the subsequent wars were more and more the mere consequences of victories, and nothing else was needed than to gather in their fruits. The armies were used for particular expeditions, suggested by policy, or for the advantages of individuals – for acquiring wealth, glory, sovereignty in the abstract. The relation to other nations was purely that of force. The national individuality of peoples did not, as early as the time of the Romans, excite respect, as is the case in modern times. The various peoples were not yet recognized as legitimated; the various states had not yet acknowledged each other as real essential existences. Equal right to existence entails a union of states, such as exists in modern Europe, or a condition like that of Greece, in which the states had an equal right to existence under the protection of the Delphic god. The Romans do not enter into such a relation to the other nations, for their god is only the Jupiter Capitolinus; neither do they respect the sacra of the other nations (any more than the plebeians those of the patricians) ; but as conquerors in the strict sense of the term, they plunder the Palladia of the nations. Rome kept standing armies in the conquered provinces, and proconsuls and propraetors were sent into them as viceroys. The Equites collected the taxes and tributes, which they farmed under the State. A net of such fiscal farmers (publicani) was thus drawn over the whole Roman world. – Cato used to say, after every deliberation of the senate: “Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam:” and Cato was a thorough Roman. The Roman principle thereby exhibits itself as the cold abstraction of sovereignty and power, as the pure egotism of the will in opposition to others, involving no moral element of determination, but appearing in a concrete form only in the shape of individual interests. Increase in the number of provinces issued in the aggrandizement of individuals within Rome itself, and the corruption thence arising. From Asia, luxury and debauchery were brought to Rome. Riches flowed in after the fashion of spoils in war, and were not the fruit of industry and honest activity; in the same way as the marine had arisen, not from the necessities of commerce, but with a warlike object. The Roman state, drawing its resources from rapine, came to be rent in sunder by quarrels about dividing the spoil. For the first occasion of the breaking out of contention within it was the legacy of Attalus, King of Pergamus, who had bequeathed his treasures to the Roman State. Tiberius Gracchus came forward with the proposal to divide it among the Roman citizens; he likewise renewed the Licinian Agrarian laws, which had been entirely set aside during the predominance of individuals in the state. His chief object was to procure property for the free citizens, and to people Italy with citizens instead of slaves. This noble Roman, however, was vanquished by the grasping nobles, for the Roman constitution was no longer in a condition to be saved by the constitution itself. Caius Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, prosecuted the same noble aim as his brother, and shared the same fate. Ruin now broke in unchecked, and as there existed no generally recognized and absolutely essential object to which the country's energy could be devoted, individualities and physical force were in the ascendant. The enormous corruption of Rome displays itself in the war with Jugurtha, who had gained the senate by bribery, and so indulged himself in the most atrocious deeds of violence and crime. Rome was pervaded by the excitement of the struggle against the Cimbri and Teutones, who assumed a menacing position towards the State. With great exertions the latter were utterly routed in Provence, near Aix; the others in Lombardy at the Adige by Marius the conqueror of Jugurtha. Then the Italian allies, whose demand of Roman citizenship had been refused, raised a revolt; and while the Romans had to sustain a struggle against a vast power in Italy, they received the news that, at the command of Mithridates, 80,000 Romans had been put to death in Asia Minor. Mithridates was King of Pontus, governed Colchis and the lands of the Black Sea, as far as the Tauric peninsula, and could summon to his standard in his war with Rome the populations of the Caucasus, of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and a part of Syria, through his son-in-law Tigranes. Sulla, who had already led the Roman hosts in the Social War, conquered him. Athens, which had hitherto been spared, was beleaguered and taken, but “for the sake of their fathers” – as Sulla expressed himself – not destroyed. He then returned to Rome, reduced the popular faction, headed by Marius and Cinna, became master of the city, and commenced systematic massacres of Roman citizens of consideration. Forty senators and six hundred knights were sacrificed to his ambition and lust of power.</p> <p>Mithridates was indeed defeated, but not overcome, and was able to begin the war anew. At the same time, Sertorius, a banished Roman, arose in revolt in Spain, carried on a contest there for eight years, and perished only through treachery. The war against Mithridates was terminated by Pompey; the King of Pontus killed himself when his resources were exhausted. The Servile War in Italy is a contemporaneous event. A great number of gladiators and mountaineers had formed a union under Spartacus, but were vanquished by Crassus. To this confusion was added the universal prevalence of piracy, which Pompey rapidly reduced by a large armament.</p> <p>We thus see the most terrible and dangerous powers arising against Rome; yet the military force of this state is victorious over all. Great individuals now appear on the stage as during the times of the fall of Greece. The biographies of Plutarch are here also of the deepest interest. It was from the disruption of the state, which had no longer any consistency or firmness in itself, that these colossal individualities arose, instinctively impelled to restore that political unity which was no longer to be found in men's dispositions. It was their misfortune that they could not maintain a pure morality, for their course of action contravened things as they are, and was a series of transgressions. Even the noblest – the Gracchi – were not merely the victims of injustice and violence from without, but were themselves involved in the corruption and wrong that universally prevailed. But that which these individuals purpose and accomplish has on its side the higher sanction of the World-Spirit, and must eventually triumph. The idea of an organization for the vast empire being altogether absent, the senate could not assert the authority of government. The sovereignty was made dependent on the people – that people which was now a mere mob, and was obliged to be supported by corn from the Roman provinces. We should refer to Cicero to see how all affairs of state were decided in riotous fashion, and with arms in hand, by the wealth and power of the grandees on the one side, and by a troop of rabble on the other. The Roman citizens attached themselves to individuals who flattered them, and who then became prominent in factions, in order to make themselves masters of Rome. Thus we see in Pompey and Caesar the two foci of Rome's splendor coming into hostile opposition: on the one side, Pompey with the Senate, and therefore apparently the defender of the Republic – on the other, Caesar with his legions and a superiority of genius. This contest between the two most powerful individualities could not be decided at Rome in the Forum. Caesar made himself master in succession, of Italy, Spain, and Greece, utterly routed his enemy at Pharsalia, forty-eight years before Christ, made himself sure of Asia, and so returned victor to Rome. In this way the world-wide sovereignty of Rome became the property of a single possessor. This important change must not be regarded as a thing of chance; it was necessary – postulated by the circumstances. The democratic constitution could no longer be really maintained in Rome, but only kept up in appearance. Cicero, who had procured himself great respect through his high oratorical talent, and whose learning acquired him considerable influence, always attributes the corrupt state of the republic to individuals and their passions. Plato, whom Cicero professedly followed, had the full consciousness that the Athenian state, as it presented itself to him, could not maintain its existence, and therefore sketched the plan of a perfect constitution accordant with his views. Cicero, on the contrary, does not consider it impossible to preserve the Roman Republic, and only desiderates some temporary assistance for it in its adversity. The nature of the State, and of the Roman State in particular, transcends his comprehension. Cato, too, says of Caesar: “His virtues be execrated, for they have ruined my country!” But it was not the mere accident of Caesar's existence that destroyed the Republic – it was Necessity. All the tendencies of the Roman principle were to sovereignty and military force: it contained in it no spiritual centre which it could make the object, occupation, and enjoyment of its Spirit. The aim of patriotism – that of preserving the State – ceases when the lust of personal dominion becomes the impelling passion. The citizens were alienated from the state, for they found in it no objective satisfaction; and the interests of individuals did not take the same direction as among the Greeks, who could set against the incipient corruption of the practical world, the noblest works of art in painting, sculpture and poetry, and especially a highly cultivated philosophy. Their works of art were only what they had collected from every part of Greece, and therefore not productions of their own; their riches were not the fruit of industry, as was the case in Athens, but the result of plunder. Elegance – Culture – was foreign to the Romans per se; they sought to obtain it from the Greeks, and for this purpose a vast number of Greek slaves were brought to Rome. Delos was the centre of this slave trade, and it is said that sometimes on a single day, ten thousand slaves were purchased there. To the Romans, Greek slaves were their poets, their authors, the superintendents of their manufactories, the instructors of their children.</p> <p>The Republic could not longer exist in Rome. We see, especially from Cicero's writings, how all public affairs were decided by the private authority of the more eminent citizens – by their power, their wealth; and what tumultuary proceedings marked all political transactions. In the republic, therefore, there was no longer any security; that could be looked for only in a single will. Caesar, who may be adduced as a paragon of Roman adaptation of means to ends – who formed his resolves with the most unerring perspicuity, and executed them with the greatest vigor and practical skill, without any superfluous excitement of mind – Caesar, judged by the great scope of history, did the Right; since he furnished a mediating element, and that kind of political bond which men's condition required. Caesar effected two objects: he calmed the internal strife, and at the same time originated a new one outside the limits of the empire. For the conquest of the world had reached hitherto only to the circle of the Alps, but Caesar opened a new scene of achievement: he founded the theatre which was on the point of becoming the centre of History. He then achieved universal sovereignty by a struggle which was decided not in Rome itself, but by his conquest of the whole Roman World.</p> <p>His position was indeed hostile to the republic, but, properly speaking, only to its shadow; for all that remained of that republic was entirely powerless. Pompey, and all those who were on the side of the senate, exalted their dignitas auctoritas – their individual rule – as the power of the republic; and the mediocrity which needed protection took refuge under this title. Caesar put an end to the empty formalism of this title, made himself master, and held together the Roman world by force, in opposition to isolated factions. Spite of this we see the noblest men of Rome supposing Caesar's rule to be a merely adventitious thing, and the entire position of affairs to be dependent on his individuality. So thought Cicero, so Brutus and Cassius. They believed that if this one individual were out of the way, the Republic would be ipso facto restored. Possessed by this remarkable hallucination, Brutus, a man of highly noble character, and Cassius, endowed with greater practical energy than Cicero, assassinated the man whose virtues they appreciated. But it became immediately manifest that only a single will could guide the Roman State, and now the Romans were compelled to adopt that opinion; since in all periods of the world a political revolution is sanctioned in men's opinions, when it repeats itself. Thus Napoleon was twice defeated, and the Bourbons twice expelled. By repetition that which at first appeared merely a matter of chance and contingency becomes a real and ratified existence.</p> <p>Section III:</p> <p>Chapter I. Rome Under the Emperors.</p> <p>During this period the Romans come into contact with the people destined to succeed them as a World-Historical nation; and we have to consider that period in two essential aspects, the secular and the spiritual. In the secular aspect two leading phases must be specially regarded: first, the position of the Ruler; and secondly, the conversion of mere individuals into persons – the world of legal relations.</p> <p>The first thing to be remarked respecting the imperial rule is that the Roman government was so abstracted from interest, that the great transition to that rule hardly changed anything in the constitution. The popular assemblies alone were unsuited to the new state of things, and disappeared. The emperor was princeps senatus, Censor, Consul, Tribune: he united all their nominally continuing offices in himself; and the military power – here the most essentially important – was exclusively in his hands. The constitution was an utterly unsubstantial form, from which all vitality, consequently all might and power, had departed; and the only means of maintaining its existence were the legions which the Emperor constantly kept in the vicinity of Rome. Public business was indeed brought before the senate, and the Emperor appeared simply as one of its members; but the senate was obliged to obey, and whoever ventured to gainsay his will was punished with death, and his property confiscated. Those therefore who had certain death in anticipation, killed themselves, that if they could do nothing more, they might at least preserve their property to their family. Tiberius was the most odious to the Romans on account of his power of dissimulation: he knew very well how to make good use of the baseness of the senate, in extirpating those among them whom he feared. The power of the Emperor rested, as we have said, on the army, and the Pretorian bodyguard which surrounded him. But the legions, and especially the Pretorians, soon became conscious of their importance, and arrogated to themselves the disposal of the imperial throne. At first they continued to show some respect for the family of Caesar Augustus, but subsequently the legions chose their own generals; such, viz., as had gained their good will and favor, partly by courage and intelligence, partly also by bribes, and indulgence in the administration of military discipline.</p> <p>The Emperors conducted themselves in the enjoyment of their power with perfect simplicity, and did not surround themselves with pomp and splendor in Oriental fashion. We find in them traits of simplicity which astonish us. Thus, e.g., Augustus writes a letter to Horace, in which he reproaches him for having failed to address any poem to him, and asks him whether he thinks that that would disgrace him with posterity. Sometimes the Senate made an attempt to regain its consequence by nominating the Emperor: but their nominees were either unable to maintain their ground, or could do so only by bribing the Pretorians. The choice of the senators and the constitution of the senate was moreover left entirely to the caprice of the Emperor. The political institutions were united in the person a the Emperor; no moral bond any longer existed; the will of the Emperor was supreme, and before him there was absolute equality. The freedmen who surrounded the Emperor were often the mightiest in the empire; for caprice recognizes no distinction. In the person of the Emperor isolated subjectivity has gained a perfectly unlimited realization. Spirit has renounced its proper nature, inasmuch as Limitation of being and of volition has been constituted an unlimited absolute existence. This arbitrary choice, moreover, has only one limit, the limit of all that is human – death; and even death became a theatrical display. Nero, e.g., died a death, which may furnish an example for the noblest hero, as for the most resigned of sufferers. Individual subjectivity thus entirely emancipated from control, has no inward life, no prospective nor retrospective emotions, no repentance, nor hope, nor fear – not even thought; for all these involve fixed conditions and aims, while here every condition is purely contingent. The springs of action are none other than desire, lust, passion, fancy – in short, caprice absolutely unfettered. It finds so little limitation in the will of others, that the relation of will to will may be called that of absolute sovereignty to absolute slavery. In the whole known world, no will is imagined that is not subject to the will of the Emperor. But under the sovereignty of that One, everything is in a condition of order; for as it actually is [as the Emperor has willed it], it is in due order, and government consists in bringing all into harmony with the sovereign One. The concrete element in the character of the Emperors is therefore of itself of no interest, because the concrete is not of essential importance. Thus there were Emperors of noble character and noble nature, and who highly distinguished themselves by mental and moral culture. Titus, Trajan, the Antonines, are known as such characters, rigorously strict in self-government; yet even these produced no change in the state. The proposition was never made during their time, to give the Roman Empire an organization of free social relationship: they were only a kind of happy chance, which passes over without a trace, and leaves the condition of things as it was. For these persons find themselves here in a position in which they cannot be said to act, since no object confronts them in opposition; they have only to will – well or ill – and it is so. The praiseworthy emperors Vespasian and Titus were succeeded by that coarsest and most loathsome tyrant, Domitian: yet the Roman historian tells us that the Roman world enjoyed tranquillizing repose under him. Those single points of light, therefore, effected no change; the whole empire was subject to the pressure of taxation and plunder; Italy was depopulated; the most fertile lands remained untilled: and this state of things lay as a fate on the Roman world.</p> <p>The second point which we have particularly to remark, is the position taken by individuals as persons. Individuals were perfectly equal (slavery made only a trifling distinction), and without any political right. As early as the termination of the Social War, the inhabitants of the whole of Italy were put on an equal footing with Roman citizens; and under Caracalla all distinction between the subjects of the entire Roman empire was abolished. Private Right developed and perfected this equality. The right of property had been previously limited by distinctions of various kinds, which were now abrogated. We observed the Romans proceeding from the principle of abstract Subjectivity, which now realizes itself as Personality in the recognition of Private Right. Private Right, viz., is this, that the social unit as such enjoys consideration in the state, in the reality which he gives to himself – viz., in property. The living political body – that Roman feeling which animated it as its soul – is now brought back to the isolation of a lifeless Private Right. As, when the physical body suffers dissolution, each point gains a life of its own, but which is only the miserable life of worms; so the political organism is here dissolved into atoms – viz., private persons. Such a condition is Roman life at this epoch: on the one side, Fate and the abstract universality of sovereignty; on the other, the individual abstraction. “Person,” which involves the recognition of the independent dignity of the social unit – not on the ground of the display of the life which he possesses – in his complete individuality – but as the abstract individuum. It is the pride of the social units to enjoy absolute importance as private persons; for the Ego is thus enabled to assert unbounded claims; but the substantial interest thus comprehended – the meum – is only of a superficial kind, and the development of private right, which this high principle introduced, involved the decay of political life. – The Emperor domineered only, and could not be said to rule; for the equitable and moral medium between the sovereign and the subjects was wanting – the bond of a constitution and organization of the state, in which a gradation of circles of social life, enjoying independent recognition, exists in communities and provinces, which, devoting their energies to the general interest, exert an influence on the general government. There are indeed Curiae in the towns, but they are either destitute of weight, or used only as means for oppressing individuals, and for systematic plunder. That, therefore, which was abidingly present to the minds of men was not their country, or such a moral unity as that supplies: the whole state of things urged them to yield themselves to fate, and to strive for a perfect indifference to life – an indifference which they sought either in freedom of thought or in directly sensuous enjoyment. Thus man was either at war with existence, or entirely given up to mere sensuous existence. He either recognized his destiny in the task of acquiring the means of enjoyment through the favor of the Emperor, or through violence, testamentary frauds, and cunning; or he sought repose in philosophy, which alone was still able to supply something firm and independent: for the systems of that time – Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Scepticism – although within their common sphere opposed to each other, had the same general purport, viz., rendering the soul absolutely indifferent to everything which the real world had to offer. These philosophies were therefore widely extended among the cultivated: they produced in man a selfreliant immobility as the result of Thought, i.e., of the activity which produces the Universal. But the inward reconciliation by means of philosophy was itself only an abstract one – in the pure principle of personality; for Thought, which, as perfectly refined, made itself its own object, and thus harmonized itself, was entirely destitute of a real object, and the immobility of Scepticism made aimlessness itself the object of the Will. This philosophy knew nothing but the negativity of all that assumed to be real, and was the counsel of despair to a world which no longer possessed anything stable. It could not satisfy the living Spirit, which longed after a higher reconciliation.</p></div> Lire Hegel dans le texte en ligne http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8493 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8493 2025-10-08T05:23:17Z text/html fr Robert Paris Dialectic - Dialectique Hegel <p>Lire G.W.F. Hegel sans abonnement, sans inscription, intégralement et gratuitement en ligne <br class='autobr' /> Hegel, La raison dans l'histoire <br class='autobr' /> Hegel Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome I <br class='autobr' /> Hegel Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome II <br class='autobr' /> Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie <br class='autobr' /> Principes de la philosophie du droit <br class='autobr' /> Lire encore <br class='autobr' /> Lire aussi <br class='autobr' /> Science de la logique <br class='autobr' /> Lire aussi <br class='autobr' /> Philosophie de la nature <br class='autobr' /> la suite <br class='autobr' /> https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/ <br class='autobr' /> Comment Hegel résume lui-même l'ensemble de ses idées (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique17" rel="directory">Chapter 12 : Philosophical annexes - Annexes philosophiques</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag">Dialectic - Dialectique</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">Lire G.W.F. Hegel sans abonnement, sans inscription, intégralement et gratuitement en ligne</h2> <p><a href="http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Hegel, La raison dans l'histoire</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l'esprit%20(T1).pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Hegel Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome I</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l'esprit%20(T2).pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Hegel Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome II</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Le%c3%a7ons%20sur%20l'histoire%20de%20la%20philosophie.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL-Principes-de-La-Philosophie-Du-Droit-Jean-Hyppolite-Paris-1940-1989.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Principes de la philosophie du droit</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Lire encore</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Lire aussi</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Science de la logique</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel,%20Georg%20Wilhelm%20Friedrich%20(1770-1831)%20-%20Inconnu(e).pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Lire aussi</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel,%20Georg%20Wilhelm%20Friedrich%20(1770-1831)%20-%20Inconnu(e).pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Philosophie de la nature</a></p> <p>la suite</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/</a></p> <p>Comment Hegel résume lui-même l'ensemble de ses idées philosophiques<br class='autobr' /> <a href="http://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737</a></p> <p>La suite</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5546" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5546</a></p> <p>G.W. F. Hegel, La science de la logique</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532</a></p> <p>G.W. F. Hegel, Philosophie de la nature</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article650" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article650</a></p> <p>Encyclopédie des sciences philosophiques de G.W.F. Hegel</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604</a></p> <p>La contradiction, dans Science de la Logique de Hegel</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570</a></p> <p>L'Esthétique, Hegel</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1042" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1042</a></p> <p>La Raison dans l'Histoire</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=59RdmqkpgpMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hegel+la+raison+dans+l%27histoire&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig1aH4lZblAhULFRQKHeLRAaAQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=hegel%20la%20raison%20dans%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=59RdmqkpgpMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hegel+la+raison+dans+l%27histoire&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig1aH4lZblAhULFRQKHeLRAaAQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=hegel%20la%20raison%20dans%20l</a>'histoire&f=false</p> <p><a href="http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_raison_dans_l_Histoire/59RdmqkpgpMC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_raison_dans_l_Histoire/59RdmqkpgpMC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'Esprit</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/8t6oEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/8t6oEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome I</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l</a>'esprit%20(T1).pdf</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/knmnn0B5QPgC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/knmnn0B5QPgC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome II</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l</a>'esprit%20(T2).pdf</p> <p>Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Le%c3%a7ons%20sur%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Le%c3%a7ons%20sur%20l</a>'histoire%20de%20la%20philosophie.pdf</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/G_W_F_Hegel_Lecons_Sur_l_Histoire_de_la/5fKX2IvlUKEC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/G_W_F_Hegel_Lecons_Sur_l_Histoire_de_la/5fKX2IvlUKEC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Science de la logique</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel_science_logique.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel_science_logique.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome I</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1863-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome1-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1863-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome1-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome II</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1864-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome2-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1864-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome2-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome III</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1866-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome3-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1866-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome3-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=w4CNDKsNUckC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFs4Le_8nKAhUMSRoKHbj-CE4Q6AEISDAH#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=w4CNDKsNUckC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFs4Le_8nKAhUMSRoKHbj-CE4Q6AEISDAH#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p>Logique tome I</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/DmfGcFChSaoC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/DmfGcFChSaoC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Logique time II</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/YN9cNb2w77IC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=logique+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/YN9cNb2w77IC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=logique+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Philosophie de l'Esprit</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=-is6Y4h8fN8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=-is6Y4h8fN8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit/-is6Y4h8fN8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit/-is6Y4h8fN8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Esthétique</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=kDIRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIOjAC#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=kDIRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIOjAC#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p><a href="http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/hegel/esthetique_1/esthetique_1.html" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/hegel/esthetique_1/esthetique_1.html</a></p> <p>Principes de la philosophie du droit</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL-Principes-de-La-Philosophie-Du-Droit-Jean-Hyppolite-Paris-1940-1989.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL-Principes-de-La-Philosophie-Du-Droit-Jean-Hyppolite-Paris-1940-1989.pdf</a><br class='autobr' /> <a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="http://philotextes.info/spip/IMG/pdf/hegel_-_principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://philotextes.info/spip/IMG/pdf/hegel_-_principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit/9yGpEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit/9yGpEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Le droit naturel</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf</a></p> <p>Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=Fdiffz7XjRUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hegel+le%C3%A7ons+sur+l%27histoire+de+la+philosophie&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=9_AnVfr5A8vTUbvagKgB&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hegel%20le%C3%A7ons%20sur%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=Fdiffz7XjRUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hegel+le%C3%A7ons+sur+l%27histoire+de+la+philosophie&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=9_AnVfr5A8vTUbvagKgB&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hegel%20le%C3%A7ons%20sur%20l</a>'histoire%20de%20la%20philosophie&f=false</p> <p><a href="https://archive.org/details/HEGELHISTOIREPHILOSOPHIE1954/page/n1/mode/2up" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://archive.org/details/HEGELHISTOIREPHILOSOPHIE1954/page/n1/mode/2up</a></p> <p>Encyclopédie des sciences philosophiques</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Encyclop%C3%A9die_des_sciences_philosophique/OWiV5ahVy2kC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Encyclop%C3%A9die_des_sciences_philosophique/OWiV5ahVy2kC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Propédeutique philosophique</p> <p><a href="https://sites.cvm.qc.ca/encephi/contenu/textes/hegel.htm" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://sites.cvm.qc.ca/encephi/contenu/textes/hegel.htm</a></p> <p>Idées philosophiques</p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1048" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1048</a></p> <p>Science de la logique</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3462" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3462</a></p> <p>Religion</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=z1B5kGP4CqYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEISjAE#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=z1B5kGP4CqYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEISjAE#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p>La logique subjective</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_logique_subjective/-8RIZOawG58C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_logique_subjective/-8RIZOawG58C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Premiers écrits</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Premiers_%C3%A9crits/cL-fR5s98H8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Premiers_%C3%A9crits/cL-fR5s98H8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Résumé</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737</a></p> <p>Lire encore</p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?mot169" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?mot169</a></p></div> C.L.R. James - Notes sur la dialectique http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8540 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8540 2025-06-30T22:30:00Z text/html fr Robert Paris Dialectic - Dialectique Hegel C. L. R. James <p>C.L.R. James <br class='autobr' /> Notes sur la dialectique <br class='autobr' /> La doctrine de l'être <br class='autobr' /> Avertissement : cette traduction, pleine d'erreurs, donne seulement une petite idée du texte et nécessite de se référer au document d'origine en anglais : <br class='autobr' /> https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1019 <br class='autobr' /> EXERCICES PRÉLIMINAIRES <br class='autobr' /> Alors que je me propose de commencer « La Logique » de Hegel proprement dite, je ressens un léger frisson. <br class='autobr' /> Harris, qui a finalement écrit un très bel ouvrage sur la logique hégélienne, était (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique15" rel="directory">Chapter 10 : Natural and social dialectic - Dialectique naturelle et sociale</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag">Dialectic - Dialectique</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot198" rel="tag">C. L. R. James</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">C.L.R. James <p>Notes sur la dialectique</p> </h2><h2 class="spip">La doctrine de l'être</h2> <p>Avertissement : cette traduction, pleine d'erreurs, donne seulement une petite idée du texte et nécessite de se référer au document d'origine en anglais :</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1019" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1019</a></p> <p>EXERCICES PRÉLIMINAIRES</p> <p>Alors que je me propose de commencer « La Logique » de Hegel proprement dite, je ressens un léger frisson.</p> <p>Harris, qui a finalement écrit un très bel ouvrage sur la logique hégélienne, était professeur de philosophie et conférencier sur Hegel de seconde main. Brockmeyer, gouverneur du Missouri, a fait une traduction de la « Grande Logique » et quelqu'un l'a donnée à Harris. Harris dit qu'il a copié la chose de sa propre main, le tout, et quand il a terminé, il n'a pas compris une ligne, pas une ligne. Je sais exactement ce qu'il ressentait.</p> <p>Ce que je propose de faire, c'est d'utiliser la « Doctrine de l'Être » comme moyen de mettre en pratique le style et la méthode de Hegel. « La Grande Logique » est le livre le plus difficile que je connaisse. « La Critique de la raison pure » de Kant est un jeu d'enfant par rapport à la « Logique ». Mais nous devons être capables de gérer cette difficulté. Ainsi, pendant que nous obtiendrons les points principaux de la « Doctrine de l'Être », considérons cela comme une sorte d'entraînement de base, avant de nous attarder dans la « Doctrine de l'Essence ». Je ne donne pas un résumé de la « Logique ». Je ne l'étends pas en tant que doctrine. Je l'utilise et montre comment commencer à la connaître et à l'utiliser.</p> <p>Pensez au monde des êtres humains, près de deux milliards, plus que cela peut-être. Quelle est la chose la plus simple que vous puissiez dire à leur sujet ? Ils existent. Deux milliards de personnes existent. Et alors ! Dire cela, c'est dire… rien. Dire quelque chose d'aussi large, d'aussi complet, d'aussi abstrait, c'est ne rien dire. Quelque chose doit arriver, doit sortir de cette abstraction. Je dis : certains de ces hommes travaillent. L'abstraction précédente est maintenant devenue quelque chose. Certains hommes travaillent. Regardons les hommes qui travaillent. Ils créent aussitôt, en se distinguant, une autre catégorie, les personnes qui ne travaillent pas. Vous ne pouvez pas isoler une catégorie sans en créer une autre. Créer une catégorie, c'est « déterminer » quelque chose. Mais chaque fois que vous déterminez quelque chose, vous niez quelque chose d'autre. À chaque fois. En choisissant de déterminer les hommes qui travaillent, nous les nions en tant qu'hommes qui existent simplement, mais nous nions aussi les hommes qui ne travaillent pas. Ce ne sont plus des hommes qui simplement existent. C'est fini. Ce sont des hommes qui ne travaillent pas. Chaque fois que vous faites quelque chose, il y a autre chose vous ne faites pas en même temps. Une pièce d'argent sur une table verte a annulé la couverture verte à l'endroit particulier où elle repose. Elle crée l'endroit où se trouve la pièce et l'endroit où la pièce n'est pas.</p> <p>Maintenant, nous avons des hommes qui travaillent. C'est la qualité qui les distingue. Quand quelque chose "devient" hors de la masse, il apparaît une "qualité". La qualité que nous prenons ici, c'est le travail. Des cow-boys, des ingénieurs. La liste est interminable. Certains travaillent bien, d'autres mal. Certains travaillent bien mais restent à la maison tous les matins. On se retrouve vite concerné par plus que la qualité, mais la quantité de travail. Le souci de la qualité nous a conduits à la quantité. Mais la quantité, elle aussi, est limitée. Plus vous la contemplez, plus vous la traitez, plus vous constatez qu'il est impossible de garder un œil sur la quantité de travail des tailleurs, des cuisiniers, des plongeurs sous-marins en mesurant le travail dans l'abstrait. Vous devez obtenir une mesure commune. Les trois divisions de la « doctrine de l'être » sont la qualité, la quantité et la mesure.</p> <p>C'est un exemple grossier, mais à mon avis tout à fait adéquat, de la méthode de Hegel. C'est ce que je recherche. Kant et les autres connaîtraient et utiliseraient aussi « Qualité, Quantité et Mesure ». Ce sur quoi Hegel a insisté, c'est que ces concepts sont indissolublement liés, que l'un se développe à partir de l'autre. La quantité est venue à un certain moment parce que la qualité sur la qualité ne continue pas à être la qualité mais, à un certain stade, devient quelque chose de nouveau. Hegel prend « la Qualité » et « la Quantité » comme des abstractions pour représenter les processus présents dans tous les aspects de la nature, de la société et de la pensée. L'eau est une qualité, un petit ruisseau annihile les terres environnantes. C'est un ruisseau parce que ce n'est plus une terre. S'il grandit et grandit encore, il devient un fleuve, et un certain nombre de fleuves se rejoignant en un seul endroit peuvent devenir une mer intérieure.</p> <p>Les catégories propres à Hegel sont bien sûr beaucoup plus profondes. Il dit : quand on dit « un être », ne pensez pas aux hommes, mais à tout ce qui existe, qui a un "être". Ne pensez pas au monde entier comme aux hommes, à la terre, au ciel, aux chevaux, à l'air, aux bâtiments. Pensez au pur « Être absolu ». Bien. Mais quand vous pensez cela, vous pensez à… rien. « Être pur » – c'est un rien pur. Quelque chose n'est pas seulement, il émerge, il « devient » et vous avez « un être déterminé ». Il a une qualité. Mais une pièce sur une table annule une partie de la table. De sorte que « l'être déterminé » est être-pour-soi mais aussi être-pour-autrui. Les hommes qui travaillent sont un être, l'être-pour-soi, mais ils sont aussi automatiquement l'être-pour-un autre, pour des hommes-qui-ne-travaillent pas. La qualité signifie qu'une limite est imposée, une barrière entre elle-même et son autre, son contraire.</p> <p>Si l'on regarde de plus près ce qu'implique une limite, on la voit impliquer en elle-même une contradiction, et ainsi manifester sa nature dialectique. D'un côté, la limite fait la réalité d'une chose ; de l'autre, c'est sa négation. Mais, encore une fois, la limite, en tant que négation de quelque chose, n'est pas un rien abstrait mais un rien qui est – ce que nous appelons un « autre ». l'autre n'est pas non plus d'une nature telle qu'on puisse penser quelque chose en dehors de lui, un quelque chose est implicitement l'autre de soi, et le quelque peu voit sa limite devenir objective pour lui dans l'autre. Si nous demandons maintenant la différence entre quelque chose et une autre chose, il s'avère qu'ils sont identiques : une similitude, qui s'exprime en latin en appelant le couple « alia-aliud », par opposition au quelque chose, est elle-même un quelque chose, et donc nous disons quelque autre, ou quelque chose d'autre ; et ainsi d'autre part le premier quelque chose opposé à l'autre, défini aussi comme quelque chose, est lui-même un autre. Quand nous disons « autre chose », notre première impression est que quelque chose pris séparément n'est que quelque chose, et que la qualité d'être autre ne s'y attache que par des considérations extérieures. Ainsi, nous supposons que la lune, étant autre chose que le soleil, pourrait très bien exister sans le soleil. Mais en réalité, la lune, en tant que quelque chose, a son autre nature implicite en elle. Platon dit : Dieu a fait le monde de la nature de l'"un" et de l'"autre" : les ayant réunis, il en a formé un troisième, qui est de la nature de l'"un" et de l'"autre".En ces termes, nous avons en termes généraux un énoncé de la nature du fini, qui, comme quelque chose, ne rencontre pas la nature de l'autre comme s'il n'avait aucune affinité avec elle, mais, étant implicitement l'autre de lui-même, subit ainsi altération. L'altération présente ainsi la contradiction inhérente qui s'attache originellement à l'être déterminé, et qui le force à sortir de ses propres limites.</p> <p>… Mais le fait est que la mutabilité réside dans le concept d'existence, et le changement n'est que la manifestation de ce qu'elle est implicitement. Les vivants meurent, simplement parce qu'en tant que vivants ils portent en eux le germe de la mort.</p> <p>C'est le cœur de la « Doctrine de l'Être » de Hegel. Quelque chose implique immédiatement une chose contraire. Continuez avec quelque chose comme la qualité, et son autre, la quantité, prendra forme. Un quelque chose de complètement abstrait est comme rien, c'est-à-dire son contraire. Quelque chose « devient » à partir de rien. Il a toujours sa limite, sa barrière. Et cette limite, la barrière, est franchie, à un certain stade, pour établir l'autre, son contraire. Tout cela se passe dans la sphère de l'être déterminé.</p> <p>Prenons un exemple de ce que signifie la méthode de la « Logique » de Hegel. Le prolétariat politiquement est un corps sans distinction de type de prolétaires. Quelque chose « devient ». Certains d'entre eux forment un parti. Du coup le prolétariat n'est plus parti d'un côté et prolétaires de l'autre. Le prolétariat est devenu parti et sans-parti, ou comme on dit, parti et masse. Le parti crée son contraire, la masse. Mais vous pouvez avoir un, deux, trois, quatre partis. Une façon évidente de distinguer est par la taille. Ce n'est cependant pas suffisant. À des fins politiques, nous pouvons juger par le "soutien", une forme de quantité. Mais le support change. À partir du soutien, nous pouvons arriver à ce qui, en dernière analyse, a décidé du soutien – la politique. C'est une forme de « Mesure ». Chaque fois que vous examinez un objet, vous pouvez commencer par rechercher sa qualité distinctive évidente, la quantité de cette qualité et la mesure de celle-ci.</p> <p>(…) Pour nous la « Doctrine de l'Être » est un chemin de pratique pour se familiariser avec la méthode, la méthode concrète, la méthode pour traiter le contenu et la méthode du conception de Hegel. Ne vous laissez pas tromper par l'extrait que je vous donne de la « Petite Logique ». Là, il est amical, attentionné et gentil. Dans la « Grande Logique », il est impitoyable. Il formule l'idée la plus difficile et la plus compliquée dans une proposition de trois mots. Il crée des termes, trois, quatre, cinq, et les utilise comme s'il s'agissait de lettres de l'alphabet. Utilisons donc cet intermède comme entraînement. Maintenant pour cette qualité dans les affaires de quantité. Hegel utilise « l'Un et le Multiple » comme illustration.</p> <p>Le bon sens pense que l'un est seul, et ici présent, et que plusieurs sont certains d'être plusieurs, et séparés. En d'autres termes. L'« Un » a une qualité spéciale d'être à part, et les « plusieurs » commencent en étant ensemble et le restent. Hegel dit non. Sa philosophie nous dit que l'Un présuppose le Multiple. Au moment où je dis « Un », j'ai ainsi créé la catégorie « Multiple ». En fait, c'est l'existence du « Multiple » qui rend possible l' « Un ». S'il n'y avait pas plusieurs, Un serait ce que vous voulez mais ce ne serait pas « Un », signifiant celui-ci, contrairement à de « multiples » autres. L'Un est donc répulsif. Être, il repousse le Multiple. C'est exclusif, mais ce n'est pas tranquille. Il repousse activement le Multiple, sinon sa qualité spécifique d'Un serait perdue. C'est la Répulsion. Mais, tous les autres Uns qui constituent le Multiple ont une relation de connexion avec lui. Ils ont ainsi une relation de connexion les uns avec les autres ; l'un, en les retenant tous, les fait tous s'unir contre lui. Mais chacun d'eux est aussi un. Ainsi l'Un commence par Répulsion mais crée dans tout autre Un une attraction. Ainsi, l'Un quand vous commencez avec elle est une Qualité, mais en examinant d'abord et en suivant ce qui est impliqué jusqu'à la fin, vous vous retrouvez avec une nouvelle catégorie, la Quantité, avec la Qualité originelle pure et simple supprimée et remplacée.</p> <p>Voici l'extrait complet :</p> <p>« L'Un, comme on l'a déjà remarqué, n'est que l'auto-exclusion et la mise explicite en tant que Multiple. Chacun des Multiples est cependant lui-même un « Un », et, en raison de son comportement, cette répulsion totale est d'un seul coup convertie en son contraire – l'Attraction. »</p> <p>Ce sur quoi Hegel insiste, ce n'est pas de refuser de voir l'Un comme fixe, fini, limité, isolé. Il est un parce qu'il y en a plusieurs, et à cause de cela, la catégorie originale de l'Un commence à prendre de nouvelles facettes et soudain, elles sont tout à l'opposé de ce avec quoi vous avez commencé. Comme Hegel le sait et le dit, vous pouvez (si vous le souhaitez) faire beaucoup de blagues sur ces transitions. Sa réponse fondamentale est que vous devez l'accompagner et voir où vous arrivez et ce que vous obtenez. Quiconque a suivi un cours sur le Capital sait qu'il existe certains types qui en contestent passionnément chaque phrase, chaque déduction. Finalement, ils se retrouvent toujours dans le camp bourgeois. C'est la révolution qu'ils combattent. Les catégories hégéliennes offrent des possibilités infinies de ce type. Cependant, nous n'avons pas seulement nos traditions passées. Nous avons eu une introduction très substantielle ici, et on peut se permettre de le suivre. En fait, peu de gens remettent en cause les grandes divisions de la « Doctrine de l'Être ». J'ai vu ces prémisses de base contestées, mais l'auteur de cette contestation a dit ensuite que si vous admettiez ces prémisses, vous ne pourriez pas vous y opposer sérieusement à la suite du raisonnement.</p> <p>Maintenant laissons Hegel lui-même parler. Je donne quelques longs extraits de « La petite Logique » :</p> <p>« Le passage de la Qualité à la Quantité, indiqué dans le paragraphe précédent, ne se retrouve pas dans notre mode de pensée ordinaire qui considère que chacune de ces catégories existe indépendamment, l'une à côté de l'autre. Nous avons coutume de dire que les choses ne sont pas seulement définies qualitativement, mais aussi quantitativement ; mais d'où proviennent ces catégories et comment sont-elles liées les unes aux autres, voilà des questions qui ne sont souvent pas examinées plus avant. Le fait est que quantité signifie simplement une qualité dépassée et absorbée : et c'est par la dialectique de la qualité examinée ici que ce dépassement s'effectue. Tout d'abord, nous avons eu l'Etre : comme vérité de l'Etre, est venu le Devenir : qui a formé le passage à l'Être Déterminé : et la vérité de cela, nous l'avons trouvée être l'Altération. Et dans son résultat, l'Altération s'est montrée être-pour-soi, exempt d'implication d'autrui et de passage dans l'autre ; qu'être-pour-soi finalement dans les deux faces de son processus, la répulsion et l'attraction, s'annulait nettement, et par là même annulerait la qualité dans la totalité de ses étapes. Pourtant cette qualité dépassée et absorbée n'est ni un rien abstrait, ni un être également abstrait et sans traits : ce n'est qu'être aussi indifférent à la déterminité ou au caractère. Cet aspect de l'être est aussi ce qui apparaît comme quantité dans nos conceptions ordinaires. Nous observons les choses, d'abord, avec un œil sur leur qualité – que nous prenons pour le caractère identique à l'être de la chose. Si nous procédons à la considération de leur quantité, nous obtenons la conception d'un caractère ou d'un mode indifférent et extérieur, de telle sorte qu'une chose reste ce qu'elle est bien que sa quantité soit altérée, et la chose devient plus ou moins grande. »</p> <p>Puis Hegel travaille sur la Quantité et arrive à la Mesure. Celles-ci, il les résume à présent :</p> <p>« Ainsi la quantité par le mouvement dialectique étudié jusqu'ici à travers ses différentes étapes, s'avère être un retour à la qualité. Le premier concept de quantité qui nous est présentée est celle de qualité abrogée et absorbée. C'est-à-dire que la quantité semblait un caractère extérieur non identique à l'être, auquel elle serait tout à fait indifférente. Ce concept, comme nous l'avons vu, sous-tend la définition mathématique de la grandeur comme ce qui peut être augmenté ou diminué. A première vue, cette définition peut donner l'impression que la quantité est simplement tout ce qui peut être modifié - augmentation et diminution impliquant de la même manière la détermination de la grandeur autrement - et peut tendre à la confondre avec l'être déterminé, le deuxième stade de la qualité, qui dans sa conception est de même conçu comme altérable. On peut cependant compléter la définition en ajoutant, qu'en quantité nous avons un altérable qui, malgré les altérations, reste le même. Il s'avère donc que la quantité implique une contradiction inhérente. Cette contradiction est ce qui forme la dialectique de la quantité. Le résultat de la dialectique cependant n'est pas un simple retour à la qualité, comme si c'était la vraie, et comme si la quantité était le faux concept, mais un progrès vers l'unité et la vérité des deux, vers la quantité qualitative, ou la Mesure.</p> <p>Cela mérite réflexion, mais ce n'est pas trop difficile. Là, Hegel dit quelque chose qu'il répète souvent, comme je l'ai déjà montré. Les hommes, sur cette question, pourraient être aussi stupides aujourd'hui qu'à l'époque. Il parle de la Nature où l'être simple et déterminé, la qualité, abonde. La mesure est un stade très bas de la logique dialectique. Et Hegel dit :</p> <p>« Il peut donc être bon à ce stade d'observer que chaque fois que dans notre étude du monde objectif nous sommes engagés dans des déterminations quantitatives, c'est dans tous les cas la Mesure que nous avons en vue, comme le but de nos opérations. En termes de langage, lorsque la constatation de caractéristiques et de relations quantitatives, elle est appelée « Mesure ». »</p> <p>Voici maintenant deux exemples splendides de la relation dialectique entre qualité, quantité et mesure :</p> <p>« On mesure par exemple la longueur de la progression de différents accords qui ont été mis en état de vibration, en tenant compte de la différence qualitative des tons provoquée par leur vibration, correspondant à cette différence de longueur. De même, en chimie, on cherche à connaître la quantité des matières mises en combinaison, afin de connaître les mesures ou proportions conditionnant cette combinaison, c'est-à-dire les quantités qui donnent naissance à des qualités définies. »</p> <p>Vient ensuite un passage vraiment superbe dans lequel vous voyez ce que la Logique signifiait pour lui et comment il l'utilisait. Elle est très longue. Mais c'est en quelque sorte une anthologie et je la voudrais en :</p> <p>« L'identité entre quantité et qualité, que l'on retrouve dans la Mesure, n'est d'abord qu'implicite, et pas encore explicitement réalisée. Autrement dit, ces deux catégories, qui s'unissent dans la Mesure, revendiquent chacune une autorité indépendante. D'une part, les caractéristiques quantitatives de l'existence peuvent être altérées, sans affecter sa qualité. D'autre part, cette augmentation et cette diminution, si immatérielles qu'elles soient, ont leur limite, en dépassant laquelle la qualité subit un changement. Ainsi la température de l'eau est, en premier lieu, un point sans conséquence quant à sa liquidité : toujours avec l'augmentation ou la diminution de la température de l'eau liquide, il arrive un point où cet état de cohésion subit un changement qualitatif. , et l'eau est convertie en vapeur ou en glace. Un changement quantitatif a lieu, apparemment sans autre signification : mais il y a quelque chose qui se cache derrière, et un changement de quantité apparemment innocent agit comme une sorte de piège, pour attraper la qualité. L'antinomie de la mesure que cela implique a été illustrée sous plus d'un costume chez les Grecs. On a demandé, par exemple, si un seul grain fait un tas de blé, ou s'il fait une queue chauve pour arracher un seul cheveu de la queue du cheval. D'abord sans doute, considérant la nature de la quantité comme un caractère indifférent et extérieur de l'être, nous sommes disposés à répondre à ces questions par la négative. Et cependant, comme il faut l'admettre, cette augmentation et cette diminution indifférentes ont leur limite : un point est enfin atteint, où un seul grain supplémentaire fait un tas de blé ; et la queue chauve est produite, si nous continuons à arracher des poils simples.Ces exemples trouvent un parallèle dans l'histoire du paysan qui, tandis que son âne marchait gaiement, continuait d'ajouter once après once à son chargement, jusqu'à ce qu'il finisse par sombrer sous le fardeau insupportable. Ce serait une erreur de traiter ces exemples comme une futilité pédante ; ils tournent vraiment sur des pensées, dont la connaissance est d'une grande importance dans la vie pratique, en particulier dans l'éthique. Ainsi, en matière de dépenses, il y a une certaine latitude dans laquelle un plus ou moins n'a pas d'importance ; mais lorsque la mesure, imposée par les circonstances individuelles du cas particulier, est dépassée d'un côté ou de l'autre, la nature qualitative de la mesure (comme dans les exemples ci-dessus de la température différente de l'eau) se fait sentir, et un cours , qui un instant auparavant était tenue pour bonne économie, se transforme en avarice ou en prodigalité.Les mêmes principes peuvent être appliqués en politique, lorsqu'il faut considérer la constitution d'un État comme indépendante, au moins comme dépendante de l'étendue de son territoire, du nombre de ses habitants et d'autres points quantitatifs du même type. Si nous regardons, par exemple, un État avec un territoire de dix mille milles carrés et une population de quatre millions d'habitants, nous devrions, sans hésitation, admettre que quelques milles carrés de terre ou quelques milliers d'habitants plus ou moins ne pourraient exercer aucune influence essentielle sur le caractère de sa constitution. Mais d'autre part, il ne faut pas oublier que par l'augmentation ou la diminution continuelle d'un état, on arrive enfin à un point où, en dehors de toutes autres circonstances, cette seule altération quantitative entraîne nécessairement avec elle une altération de la qualité de la Constitution.La constitution d'un petit canton suisse ne convient pas à un grand royaume ; et, de même, la constitution de la république romaine ne convenait pas lorsqu'elle était transférée aux petites villes impériales d'Allemagne. »</p> <p>C'est à peu près tout ce dont nous avons besoin.</p> <p>Maintenant, une petite récapitulation et un tremplin vers l'Essence. Être signifie qualité, être déterminé. Cela sort de Rien. Il traite des catégories d'autres êtres déterminés qu'un être déterminé crée automatiquement. Mais la Mesure comme dernière étape d'un tel Être qui en crée d'autres là-bas. La dialectique de la Mesure la conduit à l'Essence, où l'être n'est plus simplement déterminé. Cela se reflète. Nous commençons maintenant à voir un objet dont les parties sont séparées par la pensée. Une partie en crée une autre, c'est vrai, mais l'autre est inhérente à l'objet lui-même, pas un objet ici et un autre là-bas, mais l'objet se divise en catégories connexes qui sont toutes deux contenues dans l'objet lui-même.</p> <p>Cela a été très doux, très facile. La « Petite Logique » vaut la peine d'être lue sur la « Doctrine de l'Être » en particulier. J'ai volontairement gardé le ton léger. Il suffit de lire et de faire connaissance. Car après cela, nous allons commencer à nous déplacer et ça va être mouvementé.</p> <h2 class="spip">La Doctrine de l'Essence </h2> <p>L'ESSENCE EST UN MOUVEMENT DE NÉGATION</p> <p>Ici va donc, droit au cœur de celui-ci, et prenez le pire en premier. Préparez vous :</p> <p>« Devenir dans l'Essence – son mouvement réflexif – est donc le mouvement du Rien vers le Rien et par le Rien vers lui-même. Le passage ou le Devenir se transcende dans son passage : cet Autre qui surgit au cours de ce passage n'est pas le Non-être d'un Être, mais le Rien d'un Rien – qui constitue l'Etre – l'Etre n'existe que comme mouvement du Rien vers Rien, et ainsi est l'Essence ; et l'Essence ne contient pas ce mouvement en elle-même mais est ce mouvement, Spectacle absolu et négativité pure, qui n'a rien sans lui qui puisse le nier, mais ne nie que sa propre négativité, qui n'est que dans cette négation. »</p> <p>C'est un passage aussi difficile que possible. Pourtant, nous pouvons lui casser le dos. Essayez juste de vous souvenir. Hegel doit écrire ainsi. S'il disait, comme nous, le mouvement ouvrier ceci et cela, ou l'énergie atomique, ou la théorie de l'État, il se limiterait aussitôt. Le lecteur y penserait comme de la politique ou quoi que ce soit que Hegel ait choisi. Le mouvement serait de la politique à autre chose, puis à autre chose, et ainsi de suite à l'infini. D'ailleurs cela limiterait, j'en suis sûr, sa liberté d'analyse. Il examine au contraire une infinité de processus, étudie la relation entre les étapes, et extrait, abstrait le mouvement essentiel. D'ailleurs, en le lisant, j'ai l'impression que par l'étude des phénomènes et les méthodes d'autres philosophes, il avait appris à manier ces abstractions par elles-mêmes, et comme un homme le fait en mathématiques, les pousser plus loin par leur propre mouvement. Ils doivent donc être acceptés comme valides.</p> <p>Nous devons prendre ce passage dans tous les sens, l'inquiéter comme un chien. Quelle est l'idée centrale ? Ce que je veux que vous remarquiez, c'est là où il dit que l'Essence ne contient pas de mouvement, mais c'est ce mouvement.</p> <p>Imaginez un esprit, un génie Ariel, un être désincarné flottant dans le vide spirituel. Il ne sait pas qui il est ni ce qu'il est. Mais il veut le découvrir et on lui a dit qu'à l'intérieur de sa constellation spirituelle se trouvent un certain nombre d'éléments qui explosent périodiquement en un objet, une pierre, une fleur, un cheval, un singe, un homme, etc. c'est vrai. Mais il saura si c'est vrai ou non. Si au bout d'un moment il sent que ce n'est pas la vraie chose, il la dissout et il revient dans un esprit pur. Sa seule façon de savoir quoi que ce soit sur lui-même est de devenir l'une des choses qui sont en lui. Le jour où il devient quelque chose et sait, sent que c'est ça, alors il est enfin quelque chose de nouveau. Il a, peut-on dire, une idée de son vrai moi enfin. Mais, sauf comme quelque chose qui est devenu quelque chose pendant un certain temps, lui-même est un pur esprit, abstrait, attendant dans ces régions froides.</p> <p>L'essence est le fait que quelque chose devient continuellement autre chose et le nie parce que ce n'est pas ce que la chose qui devient veut être. Cet « être » qu'il devient, nous le savons de la Doctrine de l'Être, est « devenu » du Néant. Tout être immédiat sort du Néant et peut revenir au néant. La différence avec Essence est qu'elle crée beaucoup d'êtres différents ; ils reviennent à rien, mais l'essence continue d'essayer, car le pauvre Essence est le fait qu'il doit continuer à essayer. C'est une sorte d'être qui ne se contente pas de devenir rien mais de par sa nature même doit continuer à essayer et à essayer encore. Nous pouvons maintenant revenir au passage et nous concentrer sur certaines choses.</p> <p>Maintenant, nous pouvons faire une paraphrase lâche. (Pour l'Essence, le devenir est l'être, c'est-à-dire qu'il part du néant, reste un temps comme étant et revient au néant, mais par là revient à lui-même, ce qui est l'impérieuse nécessité de " devenir » une fois de plus.) L'être ordinaire est le mouvement du rien vers l'être-pour-autrui et continue, ou peut-être, simplement devenir et disparaître, et c'est tout. Mais Essence essaie à nouveau. Si bien que l'être dans lequel l'Essence essaie de se retrouver est pur Spectacle ; cela ne devient pas une qualité, qui devient une quantité, qui devient une mesure, etc. Non, monsieur. Spectacle pur. Négativité absolue. Montrez n ° 1. Pas bon. Nié. Montrez le n ° 2. Pas ce que je recherche - avec ça dans les limbes. Montrez le n° 3. Pas bon. Niez-le. Niez-les tous.Un jour on y arrivera (et on verra plein de choses qu'on ne pouvait pas voir avant). Mais pour le moment, Essence peut vraiment dire : « Moi ! Je sais ce que je suis maintenant. Je ne suis que la négativité, je deviens quelque chose et je la nie. Je suis un mouvement, moi. Oui c'est ça. Je suis mouvement de négation. Mais ce n'est pas tout de moi. Un jour, je le saurai. Essence bien sûr ne sait pas qu'il y a une logique à sa négativité. Un philosophe, un philosophe hégélien, qui l'observait au microscope atomique dirait : d'abord il était une pierre, puis il était une fleur, puis il était un cheval, puis il était un singe, puis il était un homme. La pauvre abstraction ne le sait pas, mais je pense qu'un jour il sera un ange. C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici.Je sais ce que je suis maintenant. Je ne suis que la négativité, je deviens quelque chose et je la nie. Je suis un mouvement, moi. Oui c'est ça. Je suis mouvement de négation. Mais ce n'est pas tout de moi. Un jour, je le saurai. Essence bien sûr ne sait pas qu'il y a une logique à sa négativité. Un philosophe, un philosophe hégélien, qui l'observait au microscope atomique dirait : d'abord il était une pierre, puis il était une fleur, puis il était un cheval, puis il était un singe, puis il était un homme. La pauvre abstraction ne le sait pas, mais je pense qu'un jour il sera un ange. C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici.Je sais ce que je suis maintenant. Je ne suis que la négativité, je deviens quelque chose et je la nie. Je suis un mouvement, moi. Oui c'est ça. Je suis mouvement de négation. Mais ce n'est pas tout de moi. Un jour, je le saurai. Essence bien sûr ne sait pas qu'il y a une logique à sa négativité. Un philosophe, un philosophe hégélien, qui l'observait au microscope atomique dirait : d'abord il était une pierre, puis il était une fleur, puis il était un cheval, puis il était un singe, puis il était un homme. La pauvre abstraction ne le sait pas, mais je pense qu'un jour il sera un ange. C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici. » Essence ne sait bien sûr pas qu'il y a une logique à sa négativité. Un philosophe, un philosophe hégélien, qui l'observait au microscope atomique dirait : d'abord il était une pierre, puis il était une fleur, puis il était un cheval, puis il était un singe, puis il était un homme. La pauvre abstraction ne le sait pas, mais je pense qu'un jour il sera un ange. C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici. » Essence ne sait bien sûr pas qu'il y a une logique à sa négativité. Un philosophe, un philosophe hégélien, qui l'observait au microscope atomique dirait : d'abord il était une pierre, puis il était une fleur, puis il était un cheval, puis il était un singe, puis il était un homme. La pauvre abstraction ne le sait pas, mais je pense qu'un jour il sera un ange. C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici.C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici.C'est ce que toute cette agitation et cette négativité doivent signifier. Mais cela bien sûr ne nous concerne pas ici.</p> <p>Maintenant de là dans le mouvement ouvrier.</p> <p>Nous savons ce qu'est le mouvement syndical. C'était à une époque les révolutions de 1848, dont le chartisme, 1839-48. Elle a pris la forme de la Première Internationale. Elle a pris la forme de la IIe Internationale à son apogée. Les syndicats étaient également organisés. Il y a des ânes qui diraient : la Commune, par exemple, a eu lieu dans une ville, comment peut-on dire que c'était une forme de tout le mouvement ouvrier ? Pensez à tous les millions et millions qui n'avaient aucun lien avec la Commune. Des imbéciles. Depuis 1917, le mouvement ouvrier, pays après pays, a tenté à plusieurs reprises d'imiter la Commune. L'Europe et l'Asie bouillonnent de futurs communards.Il est donc évident que la Commune (dans une seule ville) montrait le modèle de l'avenir - aux millions et millions dans les centaines et milliers de villes qui ne prêtaient peut-être que peu d'attention à la Commune - qui était une forme de rien en particulier. La Commune les représentait.</p> <p>Ces formulaires montrent donc que le mouvement syndical va quelque part. Mais les révolutions de 1848, elles allaient et venaient, la Commune allait et venait. La Première Internationale allait et venait. La IIe Internationale demeure, mais est une relique. Regardez-le en France – la Troisième Force. C'est une blague. En France, les deux forces sont De Gaulle et la Troisième Internationale. Qui choisit de se préoccuper de la IIe Internationale et des ouvriers catholiques est dans la même position que ceux qui n'ont pas compris que c'était la Commune et non les millions apparemment inertes qui était décisive pour l'avenir de l'Europe. Marx s'est jeté dessus.</p> <p>Mais, comme je l'ai dit, ces formes disparaissent. Mais le mouvement prolétarien continue. Ils ont un être extérieur, et ceux-ci s'évanouissent, les nouvelles formes extérieures apparaissent. Nous pouvons toujours, si nous sommes marxistes, voir la forme et ce que nous appellerons pour le moment l'Essence. Mais l'Essence n'est pas une chose qui change. Non, la forme était la Première Internationale ; l'essence était le mouvement ouvrier, prolétarien, révolutionnaire de 1871, qui était différent de celui de 1848. Et nous avons établi que le mouvement révolutionnaire d'aujourd'hui, les ouvriers qui suivent le stalinisme, ne sont pas les mêmes qui ont suivi le menchévisme. Ils sont encore plus avancés qualitativement, encore plus avancés sur la route de leur but ultime.</p> <p>La Commune donc, la Première Internationale, les luttes de 1905 n'étaient qu'Etre, elles n'étaient Rien. Ils n'existaient pas, ils existaient, ils n'existaient plus. Ils étaient de rien et sont revenus à rien. Mais leur expérience, ce qu'ils représentaient était accumulé. Ce n'était pas perdu. L'essence est un mouvement mais un mouvement de l'être emmagasiné. Les ouvriers sous le stalinisme ont l'expérience du léninisme. « L'Essence peut certainement être considérée comme un être passé, en nous rappelant cependant que le passé n'est pas totalement nié, mais seulement mis de côté et ainsi en même temps préservé.</p> <p>La Troisième Internationale réactionnaire a emmagasiné en elle le passé du léninisme qui n'est plus – il n'existe plus. Les philosophes, les marxistes, doivent retracer cela.</p> <p>Mais ce qui continue de bouger, c'est le mouvement ouvrier, le mouvement révolutionnaire lui-même. Il emmagasine l'expérience des folies et des faiblesses du proudhonisme et du bakouninisme. Il a appris la valeur de l'organisation. Elle a accumulé l'expérience du parlementarisme, de la défense nationale, etc. Elle s'est enrichie de plus en plus. (Il a organisé les idées aussi, mais toujours à la suite du mouvement objectif, changeant, développant le capitalisme.)</p> <p>A un moment donné, ce mouvement prolétarien ressemble à la Première Internationale ou à la Commune ou 1917-20. Et si vous vous arrêtez, regardez, et soyez précis, comme il faut le faire (souvenez-vous que vous ne pouvez penser que si vous avez des déterminations fixes et précises), alors vous voyez que le mouvement essentiel se reflète dans la forme. La Première Internationale l'a reflété, 1915 l'a reflété, etc. Les reflets disparaissent. Ce qu'ils réfléchissaient est emmagasiné et fait partie du nouveau prolétariat. Ce processus, la disparition du reflet, et le nouveau prolétariat avec son expérience du reflet emmagasiné en lui, repartant, ce processus est l'Essence. L'essence d'une chose est qu'elle doit se mouvoir, se réfléchir, nier le reflet qui n'était rien, devenir être, puis redevenir rien, tandis que la chose elle-même doit avancer parce que c'est sa nature de le faire. Qu'il doive se déplacer, la direction cohérente dans laquelle il se déplace, sa nécessité de nier ses réflexions, de les stocker et de poursuivre vers un but ultime, c'est son Essence. L'essence du prolétariat est son mouvement pour incorporer en lui-même l'expérience des maux du capitalisme jusqu'à ce qu'il surmonte le capitalisme lui-même. L'essence du prolétariat n'est pas qu'il soit révolutionnaire et essaie de nombreux partis différents et les rejette parce qu'ils échouent. Ce n'est pas « un substrat existant ». Il nie non seulement son reflet, il fait plus que cela, il nie davantage ses propres expériences et les emmagasine, il est donc toujours plus loin qu'il ne l'était auparavant dans son propre but spécial. Cela ne nie pas non plus en général. (La citation s'affichera.). Et maintenant, phrase par phrase.</p> <p>Devenir dans l'Essence – son moment de réflexion – est donc le mouvement du Rien vers le Rien et par le Rien vers lui-même.</p> <p>Évident. Commune, Première Internationale, Léninisme, tout, en tant qu'entités existantes, tout être pur. Le prolétariat avait un être, un certain sentiment, des idées, des impulsions, des désirs, une volonté. Elle les a acquises dans son expérience, expérience objective avec le capitalisme, avec son passé emmagasiné. C'était l'être abstrait, l'être prolétaire abstrait. Mais l'être abstrait n'est rien. La Nature de l'être doit devenir déterminée. De même que la pensée organise les impulsions, le désir, la volonté, etc., le parti prolétarien s'organise, se détermine dans Lénine, Boukharine, Trotsky, Rakovsky, le Parti bolchevik, la IIIe Internationale, être déterminé.</p> <p>Le léninisme, donc, la Troisième Internationale, est une cristallisation de l'être abstrait, qui n'est rien. Le léninisme nie ce rien en devenant quelque chose. Ensuite, il est remplacé par le stalinisme. Mais le fait que cela se produise est l'essence du prolétariat. Ses désirs, sa volonté, ses pulsions, ses besoins (essentiellement implantés en lui par sa position vis-à-vis du capitalisme) sont toujours d'abord un être abstrait, c'est-à-dire rien, puis prennent une forme déterminée, puis ceux-ci s'évanouissent dans le néant, mais leur essence est stockée en haut. Le prolétariat, par essence, a un Autre, son reflet, mais celui-ci va et vient.</p> <p>Le passage ou le Devenir se transcende dans son passage : cet Autre qui surgit au cours de ce passage n'est pas le Non-être d'un Être, mais le Rien d'un Rien ; et c'est cela – le fait qu'il soit la négation d'un Rien – qui constitue l'être.</p> <p>C'est un exercice de développement des idées de la Doctrine de l'Être. Ce passage contient la clé. Lisez-le lentement et obtenez-le :</p> <p>« L'être n'existe que comme mouvement du Rien vers le Rien, et ainsi est l'Essence- et l'Essence ne contient pas ce mouvement en soi mais est ce mouvement, Spectacle absolu et pure négativité, qui n'a rien sans lui qui puisse le nier, mais nie seulement sa propre négativité, qui n'est que dans cette négation. »</p> <p>Alors qu'en regardant en arrière, nous pouvons voir que nous avions une sorte d'être en qualité, l'être immédiat, qui a suivi son propre chemin. Maintenant nous avons une autre sorte d'être, l'Essence, qui a sa manière, la négativité constante du Spectacle, dans laquelle elle doit se retrouver. Le reste d'Essence est de retracer le développement dialectique de ce Spectacle, et le mouvement qui le nie sans cesse. (Je ne garantis pas ces interprétations. Le fait est qu'une fois qu'elles sont en panne, nous commençons à parier quelque part. Je n'ai pas peur des erreurs.)</p> <p>Alors maintenant, nous avons Essence. C'est une forme de Réflexion. Comme Hegel le décrit dans la plus petite Logique :</p> <p>« Ce mot « réflexion » est appliqué à l'origine lorsqu'un rayon de lumière en ligne droite frappant la surface d'un miroir en est renvoyé. Dans ce phénomène nous avons deux choses, d'abord un fait immédiat qui est, et deuxièmement la phase déléguée, dérivée ou transmise du même. Quelque chose de ce genre se produit lorsque nous réfléchissons ou pensons à un objet ; car ici nous voulons connaître l'objet, non dans son immédiateté, mais comme dérivé ou médiatisé. »</p> <p>Médiatisé. Un joli mot. Serre-le contre ta poitrine. Je dis, nous disons que la conscience des gens est une chose, l'immédiateté, une entité dont nous pouvons dire qu'elle a une « qualité ». Mais en tant que marxistes, nous savons que la conscience est par essence le reflet de l'environnement économique et politique, c'est-à-dire social. L'arrière-plan social est donc médiatisé par la conscience. Dans la doctrine de l'Être, la qualité était, si l'on veut, médiatisée en quantité. Dans la Doctrine de l'Essence, la qualité est, ou plutôt serait une manifestation de quelque chose qui se reflète à travers la qualité. Hegel poursuit :</p> <p>« Le problème ou le but de la philosophie est souvent représenté comme la constatation de l'essence des choses : une phrase qui signifie seulement que les choses, au lieu d'être laissées dans leur immédiateté, doivent être montrées comme médiatisées ou basées sur quelque chose d'autre. L'Etre immédiat des choses est ainsi conçu sous l'image d'une écorce ou d'un rideau derrière lequel se cache l'Essence. »</p> <p>Le maestro y va doucement. « Tout, dit-on, a une Essence ; c'est-à-dire que les choses ne sont pas vraiment ce qu'elles se montrent immédiatement. Il y a autre chose à faire que de simplement vagabonder d'une qualité à une autre, et simplement d'avancer du qualitatif au quantitatif et vice versa : il y a un permanent dans les choses et ce permanent est en premier lieu leur Essence.</p> <p>C'est assez simple. Pourquoi n'ai-je pas commencé par ça ? Non. Parce que cette simple phrase « en premier lieu » couvre beaucoup de choses et cela nous aurait causé beaucoup de problèmes. Vous auriez cru comprendre quelque chose que vous ne compreniez pas. L'essence de la conscience est l'environnement social. Mais vous obtenez là une impression qui est statique. C'est seulement parce que la conscience est une sorte de spectacle, qui doit refléter l'environnement, et l'environnement doit continuer à s'exprimer, toujours à la recherche, que nous pouvons l'appeler Essence. L'importance de cela ne peut pas être surestimée. Si vous ne voyez pas cela clairement, vous avez l'idée d'essayer ceci, d'essayer cela, d'essayer l'autre. Vous dites vite : il semble ne jamais apprendre, car « il » est statique. Alors votre essence devient une chose. Mais quand vous voyez l'Essence comme le mouvement, et le mouvement qui emmagasine l'être dépassé, mais pourtant vous êtes poussé à continuer, alors vous avez l'Essence en vérité et en fait.<br class='autobr' /> Or, savoir que l'Essence est un mouvement qui se reflète dans un Spectacle (qui est rejeté) puis repart, le savoir, c'est seulement connaître l'Essence en général. C'est le début de l'Essence. L'essence, un mouvement, avance dialectiquement. Le reflet et la chose reflétée ont leur vie propre ; ils se développent en différentes choses et nous les traçons, et voyons comment à chaque étape ils se transforment en quelque chose d'autre. Hegel appelle leur forme la plus importante les Réflexions des Déterminations. Souvenez-vous que pendant longtemps ce sont des créations de la pensée. Par exemple, lorsque vous regardez la conscience, vous ne la voyez pas divisée en conscience et existence, pour reprendre le mot de Marx. La conscience est la conscience. Mais la pensée fait cette séparation, ces déterminations de l'objet, en ses parties composantes.</p> <p>Nous voyons le léninisme comme une détermination qui reflète un certain stade de développement du mouvement perpétuel. Mais le léninisme est une détermination de la pensée. Il y a le prolétariat, dans la société capitaliste, à un certain stade de développement. Isoler ce que nous appelons le léninisme est une détermination de la pensée. L'isoler comme un fait et lui donner une vie indépendante, ah ! Jésus, c'est quelque chose qui apporte un terrible châtiment. Écoutez Hegel avant même qu'il ne commence à développer les Déterminations de la réflexion, nous disant comment certaines personnes se bloquent :</p> <p>« . . . les déterminations réfléchies sont d'un genre différent des déterminations simplement immédiates de l'être. De ces derniers, il est facile d'admettre qu'ils sont transitoires et simplement relatifs, liés à quelque chose d'autre, tandis que les déterminations réfléchies ont la forme d'être-en-et-pour-soi. Ils s'affirment donc comme essentiels, et au lieu de passer dans leurs contraires, ils apparaissent plutôt comme absolus, libres et indifférents les uns aux autres. Ils résistent donc obstinément à leur mouvement : leur Être est leur identité à soi dans leur déterminité, selon laquelle, tout en se présupposant l'un l'autre, ils se conservent pourtant comme absolument séparés dans ce rapport. »</p> <p>Le léninisme est le léninisme et le stalinisme est le stalinisme ; la Quatrième Internationale est la Quatrième Internationale. C'est leur donner la forme de l'être-en-et-pour-soi. L'extrait ci-dessus pose problème. Il n'est pas nécessaire de tout prendre phrase par phrase. Une interprétation plus lâche est indiquée ici. (Et Hegel chantera cette chanson pendant près de cinq cents pages.) Si vous regardez les déterminations « immédiates » de l'être, vous voyez le léninisme, et vous dites : ça passera ; les choses vont et viennent. Je me souviens du consul de France dans une île où j'ai séjourné qui m'a dit que l'homme politique français Briand était un socialiste dans sa jeunesse, mais il y a toujours des gens plus à gauche que vous, ce qui vous pousse à droite. Cette idée semble avoir du mouvement, mais elle prend Briand et ceux « plus à gauche » que lui comme « immédiats » - La réflexion est extérieure.</p> <p>Et Hegel (dans l'extrait complet – j'ai omis une partie du paragraphe) dit qu'il est facile pour les penseurs sérieux de mettre de côté ces déterminations externes. Mais quand on réfléchit sérieusement, qu'on voit l'être apparent comme de simples reflets de l'essence, alors ces déterminations deviennent elles-mêmes essentielles. La Commune, la IIe Internationale, le léninisme, le stalinisme, etc., deviennent « libres ». Ils deviennent indépendants de la vie. Ils vivent après leur mort, et ce qui vit est mort – pour la Compréhension. Vous voyez, vous savez que vous êtes un penseur supérieur. Ces déterminations que vous avez tracées à leurs racines. Ils se « présupposent » l'un l'autre « bien sûr ». Le léninisme est « en quelque sorte » lié au menchévisme, et le stalinisme vient du léninisme. Ils sont indissociables du capitalisme en développement et du prolétariat en développement. "Bien sûr bien sûr",mais pourtant ils sont maintenus "séparés". Le penseur individuel, après avoir travaillé dur, surmonté le sens commun vulgaire et les a établis, s'y accroche fermement. Son énergie créatrice est épuisée. Ou bien son énergie d'organisation des choses concrètes est telle qu'il se lance dans l'organisation à l'intérieur de ces catégories. Il ferait normalement peu de mal. Mais lorsque ces nouvelles catégories merveilleuses ont été établies, elles sont venues des impulsions, de la volonté, du désir, etc., des gens. Et il y a toujours des gens qui, pour des raisons objectives, souhaitent rester sur place. Ils s'emparent de cet individu et en font un héros. La Logique de la Compréhension a une base.Ou bien son énergie d'organisation des choses concrètes est telle qu'il se lance dans l'organisation à l'intérieur de ces catégories. Il ferait normalement peu de mal. Mais lorsque ces nouvelles catégories merveilleuses ont été établies, elles sont venues des impulsions, de la volonté, du désir, etc., des gens. Et il y a toujours des gens qui, pour des raisons objectives, souhaitent rester sur place. Ils s'emparent de cet individu et en font un héros. La Logique de la Compréhension a une base.Ou bien son énergie d'organisation des choses concrètes est telle qu'il se lance dans l'organisation à l'intérieur de ces catégories. Il ferait normalement peu de mal. Mais lorsque ces nouvelles catégories merveilleuses ont été établies, elles sont venues des impulsions, de la volonté, du désir, etc., des gens. Et il y a toujours des gens qui, pour des raisons objectives, souhaitent rester sur place. Ils s'emparent de cet individu et en font un héros. La Logique de la Compréhension a une base.La Logique de la Compréhension a une base.La Logique de la Compréhension a une base.</p> <p>Mais il y a des cas encore plus pathétiques, et en y repensant, je suis ému aux larmes. Il y a l'intellect et l'esprit puissants qui se déplacent dans des catégories qui, autrefois puissantes en leur temps, n'ont maintenant aucune base objective. Quel effort gaspillé ! Quels vains sacrifices ! Hegel savait. Il n'arrête pas de dire : « C'est l'ennemi, pensant dans les catégories qui étaient précises, mais acquièrent une vie indépendante et ne bougent pas. Il va nous parler des contraires et de la transition. C'est le contenu principal d'Essence. Mais avant de commencer, il dit que ce type de pensée Compréhension peut nous étrangler avant que nous puissions commencer. Identité, différence et contradiction, en particulier contradiction.</p> <p>Nous approchons maintenant du noyau du système de Hegel, dans les trois notés ci-dessus. Il ne faut cependant pas oublier que le plus grand Logic fait neuf cents pages en tout. Prenons par exemple la question de Ground qui suit ces trois. Le sol, dit Hegel, est la véritable auto-médiation de l'Essence. D'ACCORD. Et puis il est parti. Le Terrain Absolu qui est ensuite déterminé en Terrain Déterminé, qu'il analyse plus avant en Terrain Formel et Terrain Réel, qui se termine finalement en Terrain Complet. Mais les seules subdivisions du Fond absolu sont (a) Forme et Essence, (b) Forme et Matière, (c) Forme et Contenu. Il fait trente-quatre pages en tout. Que diable pouvons-nous faire avec ça ? Et pourtant, il contient des éléments aussi cruciaux que la forme et le contenu, l'existence, l'apparence, la substance, etc. Vous le lirez par vous-mêmes. Mes sélections sont arbitraires. Nous prenons des morceaux.Mais en réalité, il n'y a pas de sélections arbitraires. Mon but, ma connaissance de la Logique, ma connaissance du mouvement ouvrier, ma connaissance de mes lecteurs probables, sont tous à l'œuvre pour décider quels morceaux je vais prendre. Si mes connaissances ne sont pas trop superficielles et mon objectif pas trop étroit, un vrai aperçu de la Logique sera donné et un vrai aperçu du mouvement ouvrier aussi. Mais nous devons connaître les limites de ce que nous faisons. On se fait une idée de la chose, c'est tout. Cependant, quand il s'agit d'Identité, de Différence et de Contradiction, je pense que nous devrions essayer de suivre sa méthode abstraite, comme nous l'avons fait dans une certaine mesure dans la Doctrine de l'Être. Ils sont, comme je l'ai dit, le noyau.sont tous au travail pour décider quels morceaux je vais prendre. Si mes connaissances ne sont pas trop superficielles et mon objectif pas trop étroit, un vrai aperçu de la Logique sera donné et un vrai aperçu du mouvement ouvrier aussi. Mais nous devons connaître les limites de ce que nous faisons. On se fait une idée de la chose, c'est tout. Cependant, quand il s'agit d'Identité, de Différence et de Contradiction, je pense que nous devrions essayer de suivre sa méthode abstraite, comme nous l'avons fait dans une certaine mesure dans la Doctrine de l'Être. Ils sont, comme je l'ai dit, le noyau.sont tous au travail pour décider quels morceaux je vais prendre. Si mes connaissances ne sont pas trop superficielles et mon objectif pas trop étroit, un vrai aperçu de la Logique sera donné et un vrai aperçu du mouvement ouvrier aussi. Mais nous devons connaître les limites de ce que nous faisons. On se fait une idée de la chose, c'est tout. Cependant, quand il s'agit d'Identité, de Différence et de Contradiction, je pense que nous devrions essayer de suivre sa méthode abstraite, comme nous l'avons fait dans une certaine mesure dans la Doctrine de l'Être. Ils sont, comme je l'ai dit, le noyau.quand il s'agit d'Identité, de Différence et de Contradiction, je pense que nous devrions essayer de suivre sa méthode abstraite, comme nous l'avons fait dans une certaine mesure dans la Doctrine de l'Être. Ils sont, comme je l'ai dit, le noyau.quand il s'agit d'Identité, de Différence et de Contradiction, je pense que nous devrions essayer de suivre sa méthode abstraite, comme nous l'avons fait dans une certaine mesure dans la Doctrine de l'Être. Ils sont, comme je l'ai dit, le noyau.</p> <p>Le traitement de l'Identité dans la plus petite Logique est l'une des choses les plus déconcertantes et les plus irritantes de Hegel. Je soupçonne qu'une connaissance approfondie de la logique à l'ancienne serait utile. En tout cas, Hegel semble dire quelque chose comme ceci : « Vous voyez cette nappe ? C'est plus qu'une nappe ; une connaissance approfondie maintenant d'une nappe est absolument nécessaire pour comprendre la logique ; passons maintenant à la section suivante.</p> <p>Mon explication, comme beaucoup de mes explications, commettra sans aucun doute des violations. Mais vous en apprendrez probablement quelque chose. J'ai lu nombre de brèves explications de Hegel et de la Logique en particulier, qui n'expliquaient rien. C'est pourquoi j'utilise ma propre méthode. Comme le disent très franchement les traducteurs de la Logique plus large : « Nous n'avons aucun doute que nous n'avons pas réussi à comprendre la pensée dans de nombreux endroits. « Moi aussi, je sais à quel point il est facile de mal interpréter. Mais cela ne doit pas nous décourager. Maintenant - Je regarde quelque chose et à mon avis j'en ai une image (comment je pourrais déchirer cette formulation en morceaux !) – livre, pierre, cheval, maison, mouvement ouvrier, théorie scientifique, plat de glace. Je me le définis : j'établis son identité. Je peux être assez précis. Je dis : cette maison, je l'ai conçue. Je l'ai construit. J'y vis. Je sais tout à ce sujet. Je peux le décrire, peut-être faire un inventaire. Cette maison est cette maison. Ce que j'écris sur le papier, les plans, les photographies, les souvenirs, etc., tout correspond à cette maison. Mais le conception – cette maison, que je crois avoir si clairement établie, m'échappe au moment même où je l'établis. La maison change. (Je change aussi, mais oubliez ça, ou plutôt mettez ça de côté pour le moment.) Dans deux ans cette maison sera une autre maison : peinture disparue, trous dans le toit, meubles gorgés d'eau, herbe poussant dans le patio.Au lieu que cette maison soit dans la classe A, cette maison a dégénéré en classe C. Cela s'est produit en deux ans, mais en réalité, cela se produisait tout le temps. Toute l'existence de la maison est une lutte contre précisément une telle dégénérescence. Or Hegel dit, et c'est le premier (large) énoncé de sa méthode hégélienne particulière, il dit : moi qui sais cela, quand je regarde la maison, je dois dire - cette maison est, mais en même temps elle n'est pas, ou pour être plus précis, c'est et ce n'est pas ce que c'est, c'est aussi autre chose. Vous le trouvez dans les livres car A n'est pas égal à A. Cette formule est la formule la plus trompeuse qui puisse être. N'importe quel imbécile peut être d'accord avec cela, et n'importe quel imbécile peut être en désaccord. Simplement parce qu'à lui seul il ne prouve rien. Vous devez prendre tout l'argument hégélien ou vous feriez mieux de le laisser de côté.</p> <p>Car Hegel, ayant établi le caractère incertain de l'Identité, passe aussitôt à la Différence. Et ici, il est tout aussi audacieux mais un peu plus facile à suivre. Il dit que si l'identité implique la différence, alors également la différence implique l'identité. Je ne compare pas un chameau à un dictionnaire français. Ce ne sont là que des choses dissemblables ; il n'y a pas de "différence" entre eux. Bien sûr, ils sont « différents », mais c'est une différence vulgaire, aussi vulgaire à sa manière que l'identité que la maison est la maison. Je peux comparer sérieusement les différences de deux livres, deux romans, deux romans de la même époque, deux romans du même auteur. La différence, la différence dont il faut parler, ne peut exister que sur la base d'une certaine identité. Et l'identité à l'inverse ne peut exister qu'à partir de la différence, cette maison est et n'est pas cette maison.Et cette maison d'aujourd'hui n'est pas cette maison de demain ou dans deux ans.</p> <p>En fait Hegel dit qu'au moment où vous pensez, que vous le sachiez ou non, vous niez l'existant. « Cette maison vaut 5 000 $ » signifie qu'elle valait plus et que demain elle ne vaudra que 4 000 $, ou si l'inflation continue, 10 000 $, nègres et tout. Si je dis que cette maison vaut 5 000 $, valait toujours 5 000 $ et vaudra toujours 5 000 $, pour toujours et à jamais, je ne dis rien, du moins je ne pense pas sérieusement. La pensée n'a de sens que lorsque la maison est en relation avec d'autres maisons qui ne possèdent pas cet attribut inestimable de maintenir constamment le prix.</p> <p>Identité signifie différence. La différence signifie l'identité. Et maintenant, avec un saut, nous pouvons y entrer. Hegel dit que ce principe devient important, en fait décisif, lorsqu'on regarde, fait une cognition philosophique, à propos d'un seul objet. Dans l'identité d'un objet, vous devez établir la différence spécifique, et dans sa différence spécifique, vous devez établir l'identité. Si vous avez établi la différence spécifique, la différence qui appartient à l'objet, qui le distingue de tous les autres objets et de leurs différences, alors vous avez l'Autre de l'objet. L'autre est la différence qui compte, la différence essentielle. Mais comme il n'est différent (essentiel) d'aucun autre objet, alors Autre est donc identique à son objet. Le découvrir, c'est découvrir ce qui fait bouger l'objet.Je regarde la société bourgeoise et je vois le capital, mais le travail est son autre. Dans le capital est la différence essentielle, mais le capital et le travail sont une seule identité.</p> <p>Je pense moi-même que tout cela est passionnant. Poussons maintenant ce principe un peu plus loin, en laissant Hegel parler lui-même, même si je n'utilise pas toujours les guillemets. Il dit que cette question de la différence essentielle au sein de chaque identité est la nécessité indispensable de la cognition philosophique. Plus tard, il nous dira quand vous dites père, vous avez à l'esprit fils. Le fils est interpénétré avec le père. Père n'a de sens que par rapport au fils. Le dessus n'a de sens que par rapport au dessous. Si je ne voulais pas dire père par rapport au fils, je ne dirais pas père, je dirais : homme ou joueur de baseball ou quelque chose comme ça, mais alors je regarde un ou plusieurs autres objets. Alors cette identité simple et abstraite est une fiction, un piège mortel pour les penseurs.</p> <p>Il est de la plus haute importance de reconnaître cette qualité des déterminations de la réflexion qui ont été considérées ici, que leur vérité ne consiste que dans leur relation les unes avec les autres, et donc dans le fait que chacune contient l'autre dans son propre concept. Cela doit être compris et rappelé, car sans cette compréhension, pas un pas ne peut vraiment être fait en philosophie.</p> <p>C'est ainsi que la maison n'est pas simplement la maison. La maison est essentiellement une protection contre la nature. De sorte qu'identique à la maison est son Autre, destruction par la Nature. La maison peut être un fort contenant des soldats. Si identique à la maison à cet égard est sa destruction par l'artillerie, etc. La maison peut aussi être une source de revenus. De sorte qu'identique à cela est la baisse du loyer. Tout a son propre complexe spécifique de relations, et le quelque chose a différents complexes de relations qui continuent à lui donner un Autre spécifique, c'est-à-dire à contrôler son mouvement. C'est un aspect très important de la dialectique. Et comme Hegel aime à le dire, la dialectique n'est pas pratiquée que par les philosophes. L'agent immobilier, l'architecte, tous ces gens connaissent très bien l'Autre particulier de leur maison. C'est toujours dans leur concept.Il est vrai que la dialectique de la maison est en règle générale à un niveau très bas, sauf en cas d'ouragans de Floride, d'incendie ou d'inflation galopante. Mais ça, Hegel le sait aussi. Et il sait aussi que là où vous examinez les grandes formes sociales et intellectuelles de la société, alors vous devez vous rappeler que chaque objet contient son Autre dans son propre concept et que toute détermination de la pensée a aussi son autre dans son concept. Le travail a toujours du capital dans son concept. C'est pourquoi le travail en 1864 avait le capital de 1864 dans son concept, le travail en 1948 a le capital de 1948 dans son concept. Le menchevisme avait le léninisme dans son concept, et le léninisme avait le stalinisme dans son concept. Comment le stalinisme ? Car tant que le nouvel organisme, le socialisme, n'avait pas été atteint, la détermination révolutionnaire, le léninisme,serait attaqué par le reflet en son sein de l'ennemi fondamental du prolétariat, du capital et du capital d'État au sein du mouvement ouvrier est précisément le stalinisme, comme le menchevisme était le capital monopoliste (dans son stade de super-profits de l'impérialisme) au sein du mouvement ouvrier. Vous ne le savez pas ? Vous ne pouvez pas bouger d'un pied. C'est pire. Vous pouvez vous déplacer mais dans la mauvaise direction.</p> <p>Leur vérité ne consiste que dans leur relation les uns avec les autres. Chacun contient l'autre dans son propre concept. Saches cela. Lisez-le dans les deux Logiques. Réfléchissez-y. Car si vous ne le faites pas, vous ne pouvez pas penser. Leur vérité ne consiste que dans leur relation les uns avec les autres. La vérité du mouvement ouvrier ne consiste que dans son rapport au capital. Comme nous avons sué pour montrer que la vérité de la Première Internationale ne peut être saisie que par rapport à la capitale spécifique de l'époque, que la IIe Internationale avait un rapport similaire, que la vérité de la IIIe Internationale, par rapport à la IVe Internationale , doit être le même. Comprenez-le et souvenez-vous-en. Souviens toi. Souvenez-vous que le menchevisme en tant que tendance politique dans le mouvement ouvrier avait son opposé précis, le léninisme. C'est l'histoire de la IIe Internationale,de la IIe Internationale et aucune autre. Lorsque le menchevisme a atteint son apogée, il a péri et le léninisme a pris sa place. C'est comme ça que ça s'est passé, et ça ne pouvait pas bouger autrement. Le mouvement ouvrier ne pouvait passer des idées révolutionnaires de 1889 à 1917 que par une opposition, une transition par la croissance du menchévisme, et en le surmontant. (Nous savons mais nous devons le répéter que celles-ci représentaient des forces objectives. Mais pour le moment, concentrons-nous sur le processus de la pensée.) Je ne sais pas si vous l'avez. Une détermination de la réflexion est identité et différence. Et la différence, l'Autre, émerge, devient forte, et l'Identité doit la surmonter, car l'identité est le début de l'Essence, le mouvement en avant.et il ne pouvait pas bouger autrement. Le mouvement ouvrier ne pouvait passer des idées révolutionnaires de 1889 à 1917 que par une opposition, une transition par la croissance du menchévisme, et en le surmontant. (Nous savons mais nous devons le répéter que celles-ci représentaient des forces objectives. Mais pour le moment, concentrons-nous sur le processus de la pensée.) Je ne sais pas si vous l'avez. Une détermination de la réflexion est identité et différence. Et la différence, l'Autre, émerge, devient forte, et l'Identité doit la surmonter, car l'identité est le début de l'Essence, le mouvement en avant.et il ne pouvait pas bouger autrement. Le mouvement ouvrier ne pouvait passer des idées révolutionnaires de 1889 à 1917 que par une opposition, une transition par la croissance du menchévisme, et en le surmontant. (Nous savons mais nous devons le répéter que celles-ci représentaient des forces objectives. Mais pour le moment, concentrons-nous sur le processus de la pensée.) Je ne sais pas si vous l'avez. Une détermination de la réflexion est identité et différence. Et la différence, l'Autre, émerge, devient forte, et l'Identité doit la surmonter, car l'identité est le début de l'Essence, le mouvement en avant.Mais pour le moment, concentrons-nous sur le processus de la pensée.) Je ne sais pas si vous l'avez. Une détermination de la réflexion est identité et différence. Et la différence, l'Autre, émerge, devient forte, et l'Identité doit la surmonter, car l'identité est le début de l'Essence, le mouvement en avant.Mais pour le moment, concentrons-nous sur le processus de la pensée.) Je ne sais pas si vous l'avez. Une détermination de la réflexion est identité et différence. Et la différence, l'Autre, émerge, devient forte, et l'Identité doit la surmonter, car l'identité est le début de l'Essence, le mouvement en avant.</p> <p>L'histoire de la Troisième Internationale est l'histoire du dépassement du léninisme par le stalinisme. Tenez fermement le mouvement. Vous voyez, ce qui était du spectacle est maintenant plus que du spectacle. C'est l'Autre qui forme la montagne déchirante que l'Identité doit créer et gravir avant de pouvoir atteindre la hauteur pour se réinstaller en tant qu'Identité sur un plan plus élevé. Ainsi, les reflets de la détermination doivent être considérés. Ne leur donnez pas une vie libre et indépendante. Ils vont vous assassiner. Examinez-les. Voir leur Autre, et voir si quand quelque chose de grave apparaît ce n'est pas l'Autre qui sort. Alors vous le savez, vous pouvez le tracer, vous savez pourquoi il est là, et vous pouvez mobiliser des forces pour le surmonter. Mais si vous ne le voyez pas comme Différence d'identité, cruelle, meurtrière, mais (étant donné les forces objectives) transition nécessaire, puis vous vous précipitez dans des explications fantastiques telles que « les outils du Kremlin » ou l'incapacité des travailleurs à comprendre la politique et ainsi de suite. Une fois de plus. Ce qui devient finalement l'obstacle qu'il faut franchir, c'est un Autre qui était en lui, identique à lui et pourtant différence essentielle.</p> <p>Si la Quatrième Internationale doit supplanter le stalinisme, alors elle doit « contenir » le stalinisme dans son concept d'elle-même. Cela part de tout ce que le stalinisme a pris le relais du léninisme et conservé (des forces objectives font ressortir l'Autre – des forces objectives différentes feraient ressortir un Autre différent). Au moment où vous pensez, ou laissez se cacher dans votre esprit que les travailleurs sont arriérés ou trompés, vous répudiez deux ou trois décennies d'histoire et votre concept contient comme son opposé, le menchevisme. Vous combattez ensuite un fantôme. Les ouvriers britanniques, les ouvriers américains ne sont pas mencheviks, pas plus que les ouvriers de Norvège et de Suède. Un sondage réalisé il y a quelques mois dans tous les pays européens montrait que plus de soixante pour cent des populations étaient prêtes à supprimer les droits de douane, à intégrer les économies, etc.Ce qui était l'avant-garde à l'époque de Lénine est maintenant une partie essentielle de l'ensemble des populations. L'Autre du menchevisme était le léninisme. L'Autre du stalinisme est un ordre économique socialiste international, embrassant dès le départ des continents entiers. Leur vérité ne consiste qu'en relation l'une avec l'autre. Chacun contient l'autre dans son propre concept. Il va de l'avant en dépassant ce contraire spécifique. Nous n'avons pas travaillé en vain. Nous avons maintenant (je l'espère) saisi sans savoir ce que Hegel entend par son grand principe de contradiction. ContradictionNous n'avons pas travaillé en vain. Nous avons maintenant (je l'espère) saisi sans savoir ce que Hegel entend par son grand principe de contradiction. ContradictionNous n'avons pas travaillé en vain. Nous avons maintenant (je l'espère) saisi sans savoir ce que Hegel entend par son grand principe de contradiction. Contradiction.</p> <p>Les pages les plus importantes de la Doctrine de l'Essence que j'ai trouvées sont l'Observation 3 de la Logique plus large. Je pense que lorsque nous en aurons terminé avec cela, la bosse sera derrière nous, bien qu'il reste encore beaucoup à faire.</p> <p>Hegel, à sa manière alléchante, commence par parler calmement de l'Identité, de la Variété et de l'Opposition, qu'il appelle les déterminations primaires de la Réflexion. J'ai préféré parler de différence et de contradiction identitaires. Allez les chercher vous-même si vous le souhaitez. Puis il dit que la contradiction est la racine de tout mouvement et de toute vie et que ce n'est qu'à travers elle que quelque chose bouge et a une impulsion et une activité. Tout le monde, chaque marxiste, connaît ces déclarations.</p> <p>Ensuite, Hegel fait quelque chose de très caractéristique. Il dit qu'en ce qui concerne l'affirmation de certaines personnes selon laquelle la contradiction n'existe pas, « nous pouvons ignorer cette affirmation ». Il suffit de laisser. Tout d'abord, il est un homme béni, pas un politicien. En politique, vous ne pouvez pas ignorer les opposants. Deuxièmement, il ne peut pas commencer par prouver une telle affirmation. Lui demander de le faire est, selon lui, non scientifique. La preuve, c'est tout ce qu'il dira et les conclusions auxquelles il parviendra. Si vous n'aimez pas, passez votre chemin. Puis après beaucoup du même panégyrique à la contradiction, il termine :</p> <p>« La pensée spéculative consiste seulement en ceci, que la pensée tient la Contradiction, et, dans la Contradiction, elle-même, et non en ce qu'elle se laisse dominer par elle - comme il arrive à l'imagination - ou laisse ses déterminations se résoudre en autre, ou en Rien. »</p> <p>Vous n'avez pas une « perception assez simple » de ce que cela signifie, je suis tout à fait sûr que lorsque vous comprenez la dialectique. Tant que vous n'avez pas cette simple idée, vous ne la comprenez pas. Obtenir ce simple aperçu va être un travail. Allons-y.</p> <p>Vous vous souvenez que chacun contient l'autre dans son propre concept. J'ai parlé d'organisation et de spontanéité, de parti et de masse, de politique et d'économie. Dire que chacun de ces concepts doit contenir l'autre revient à faire une déclaration profonde mais générale. Beaucoup de travaux ont été faits dans le bolchevisme pour montrer que la politique contient l'économie dans son concept. Aucun travail, absolument aucun, n'a été fait sur les autres, à l'exception de quelques débuts merveilleux de Lénine. (Les sujets d'organisation et de spontanéité, de parti et de masse, n'étaient pas urgents à l'époque de Marx.)</p> <p>Comme je l'ai dit : dire que la vérité de parti consiste dans son rapport à la masse, la vérité d'organisation consiste dans son rapport à la spontanéité, c'est dire une vérité abstraite, mais vérité importante encore, un commencement. L'un des concepts a vie et mouvement à cause de l'opposition de l'autre. Il bouge à cause de l'autre, parce que l'autre bouge. Il ne peut pas bouger autrement. Et la pensée doit le savoir et le retenir. Regardez la procédure réelle de Hegel dans la Logique.</p> <p>Nous commençons par Identité. C'est devenu la différence. Il l'a maintenant portée à la contradiction. Chacun est poussé à sa limite et devient ainsi un point de transition pour son contraire. C'est ainsi que la qualité devient quantité. C'est ainsi que la quantité est devenue la mesure.</p> <p>C'est donc ce à quoi Hegel veut en venir par son traitement de l'identité, de la différence, de la contradiction, de la variété, de l'opposition et de son affirmation selon laquelle la contradiction est la source de tout mouvement. Quand vous observez ce qu'est une identité apparente, sachez qu'en son sein existent des contradictions, des différences essentielles. Comment saurez-vous ? Dans cette section ennuyeuse de la plus petite Logique traitant de l'identité, il utilise une superbe phrase : « L'identité est l'idéalité de l'être ». La différence est d'abord dans votre tête, l'Idée. (Je vous ai demandé, souvenez-vous, de ne pas oublier cela, mais de le mettre de côté.) Ce qui se passe dans votre tête lorsque vous regardez quelque chose ne peut jamais être un simple reflet, une identité ordinaire avec lui. Vous savez où il va, ce qu'il vise. Il a son être, l'être est concret, mais son essence est que, à cause de son Autre,il se déplacera dans une certaine direction et votre Idée vous dit comment rechercher la Contradiction. Sans cela, vous ne pouvez pas penser. Regardez ce qui se passe dans le mouvement marxiste aujourd'hui comme analyse d'organisation.</p> <p>Trotsky, répétons-le, ayant échoué pendant des années à comprendre Lénine sur « l'organisation », s'est converti en 1917 ; et c'est ce qui est vrai, l'a aussitôt converti en un fétiche, c'est-à-dire un Entendement persistant. Car c'est cela le fétichisme. (Les staliniens ont fait de même.) Les « principes d'organisation » de Lénine sont aujourd'hui sur toutes les lèvres. Ils sont devenus une abstraction complète, Compréhension. Qu'on ne puisse penser l'organisation que par rapport à son contraire, la spontanéité, dont personne, pas une âme, ne dit jamais un mot. Je reprendrai cela concrètement sous peu, mais pour l'instant écoutons Hegel et comprenons-le.</p> <p>Il nous dit d'abord la façon dont pense l'Imagination et par Imagination (nous l'avons eu il y a quelques minutes) Hegel désigne le genre de pensée qui ne traite que de ce qui est familier. Notez ce qu'il appelle cela – Imagination. À première vue, cela semble incongru. Mais je pense qu'il veut l'opposer à la méthode scientifique, à l'analyse. Dans tous les cas :</p> <p>Ainsi bien que l'imagination ait partout Contradiction pour contenu, elle n'en prend jamais conscience, elle reste un reflet extérieur, qui passe de la Ressemblance à la Dissemblance. . . Il garde ces deux déterminations extérieures l'une à l'autre, et n'a en vue que celles-ci, non leur transition, qui est la matière essentielle et contient la Contradiction.</p> <p>Notez leur transition. C'est l'essentiel. La transition montre la contradiction. Souvenez-vous de la croissance du Bernsteinisme au sein de la Deuxième Internationale révolutionnaire en contradiction avec l'ensemble du but et du but essentiels de l'organisation ; et après cette croissance la rupture de 1914-21, le point de la transition, quand le prolétariat révolutionnaire surmonte cela et réaffirme son but essentiel sur un plan supérieur.</p> <p>Vous hochez la tête et dites : oui, oui, d'accord. Je l'ai, je l'ai. Balivernes. Vous serez un peu plus châtié, vous serez beaucoup plus châtié plus tard, mais vous serez un peu châtié maintenant quand vous penserez que Lénine n'a jamais vu cela, jusqu'à après, et Trotsky on peut vraiment dire qu'il ne l'a jamais vu - jusqu'en 1923 au moins, il chantait le même vieux air. Alors un peu de modestie s'il vous plaît pendant que nous continuons.</p> <p>L'imagination, en tant qu'elle est révolutionnaire, voit le stalinisme ici et le « socialisme démocratique » là-bas ; et ne les voit jamais, leur identité ou leur unité comme des contraires. Il ne voit pas que le mouvement ouvrier, étant ce qu'il est par essence, la domination bureaucratique, criminelle, organisationnelle du stalinisme, constituera inévitablement le point de transition vers un autre échelon supérieur. Il voit l'organisation dégradante et dans le désespoir (ou l'espoir) scrute l'horizon à la recherche du salut. La dialectique hégélienne garde les yeux rivés sur l'organisation stalinienne car elle sait que l'Autre est là. Voyez maintenant le principal ennemi de Hegel, la Compréhension, tirer sa révérence :</p> <p>D'autre part, la réflexion intelligente, si l'on peut en parler ici, consiste dans la compréhension et l'énonciation de la Contradiction. Il n'exprime pas le concept des choses et de leurs relations et n'a que des déterminations d'imagination pour le matériel et le contenu ; mais il les rapporte néanmoins, et la relation contient leur contradiction, laissant transparaître leur concept à travers la contradiction.</p> <p>La compréhension est la même que la réflexion intelligente. La compréhension ne peut pas, n'exprime pas le concept des choses et de leurs relations. Ses déterminations sont ce qui lui est familier, non ce qui lui est familier en général, mais ce qui lui est familier, ce qu'il a fait une fois. Elle opère avec des bureaucraties inaltérablement liées à la propriété privée, et des internationales réformistes qui toujours en crise défendent la propriété privée et l'État national, choses qui lui sont familières. Mais la Compréhension relie ces déterminations – elle pense, elle a des perspectives. Il dit : "C'est ce que c'est, et c'est ce que cela devrait être." Vous êtes en mesure d'entrevoir le concept authentique. Cela se voit à travers la contradiction. Est-il possible d'avoir une appréciation plus juste, plus précise de la nature des écrits de Trotsky ? Et maintenant pour voir ce qu'ils sont, en voyant plus clairement encore ce qu'ils ne sont pas. Voyons comment la vraie dialectique, la raison pensante, gère ces choses. Il s'agit d'un article article par article. J'espère que tu l'auras la première fois. Nous avons travaillé assez dur.</p> <p>La Raison pensante, d'autre part, aiguise (pour ainsi dire) la différence brutale de la Variété, le simple multiple de l'imagination, en différence essentielle, c'est-à-dire en Opposition.</p> <p>Magnifique. Magnifique. L'imagination voit beaucoup de choses différentes et les voit comme des choses similaires et différentes, une variété multiple. Réflexion, Compréhension, les relie et montre comment ils se contredisent. Voyez comment le stalinisme contredit une véritable organisation révolutionnaire. Mais la Raison, la Raison, saisit la variété et cherche l'Opposition, la Contradiction, et les pousse ensemble, les lie, fait l'un l'autre de l'autre. Ensuite, les choses arrivent.</p> <p>Les entités multiples n'acquièrent l'activité et la vivacité les unes par rapport aux autres que lorsqu'elles sont poussées sur la pointe aiguë de la Contradiction.</p> <p>C'est ça. Quand ils sont tous les deux coincés, enfermés l'un dans l'autre, c'est la garantie de leur mouvement. Lorsque vous concentrez toute votre attention sur la contradiction entre le bureaucratisme stalinien et la nécessité du prolétariat pour une activité créatrice libre, alors tous les phénomènes commencent à bouger. Ils ne le font que lorsque la contradiction est à son paroxysme. Hegel veut dire que nous ne pouvons voir le mouvement que lorsque nous avons clarifié la contradiction – « de là ils tirent la négativité ».</p> <p>Tout à fait. La négativité de la libre activité créatrice du prolétariat ne peut entrer pleinement en jeu que lorsqu'elle est en contradiction avec un obstacle concret, quelque chose que, pour libérer sa propre nature, il doit surmonter. C'est la nature insupportable de la contradiction qui crée la négativité, « qui est la pulsation inhérente au mouvement et à la vivacité de soi ».</p> <p>Ce n'est donc pas une tare, une faute, une déficience d'une chose si l'on y trouve une Contradiction. C'est sa vie.</p> <p>Au contraire, toute détermination, tout concret, tout concept est essentiellement une union de moments distingués et distinguables, qui passent à travers la différence déterminée et essentielle en moments contradictoires.</p> <p>Je me demande si vous avez l'extrême, l'audace sans précédent de cette déclaration. Je peux très bien imaginer tant de gens que nous connaissons dire : « Hegel, il y a quelque chose dans ce que vous dites. Mais comme d'habitude, vous exagérez. Chaque détermination. Chaque béton. Chaque concept. C'est sa façon de dire que tout a ces moments, ces oppositions ; l'un d'eux est l'opposé de ce qui est le réel, la nature essentielle de l'organisme. Par sa lutte contre cela, l'organisme retrouve davantage sa vraie nature, sa véritable nature. Écrivains sur l'économie politique américaine, écrivains sur l'histoire américaine, étudiants en théâtre grec, écrivains sur le développement des syndicats, vous tous, mettez cela dans vos os. Ce n'est pas simple. Efforcez-vous de le voir, de le voir « simplement », comme disait Hegel dans l'Introduction. S'il n'y a pas de contradiction flagrante, alors il n'y a pas de mouvement à proprement parler et il y a stagnation, compromis. C'est la seule raison pour laquelle il y a compromis et stagnation – parce que la contradiction n'est pas assez nette.</p> <p>Le paragraphe n'est pas encore terminé, mais je propose de rester ici un moment. Tout d'abord, réécoutez Hegel, dans la plus petite Logic. Au moment où il approche du point culminant de son œuvre, son exposition de l'Idée Absolue.</p> <p>Au cours de son processus, l'Idée crée cette illusion, en lui opposant une antithèse ; et son action consiste à se débarrasser de l'illusion qu'elle a créée. Ce n'est que de cette erreur que la vérité surgit. Dans ce fait réside la réconciliation avec l'erreur et avec la finitude. L'erreur ou l'être-autre, lorsqu'il est dépassé, est encore un élément dynamique nécessaire de la vérité : car la vérité ne peut être que là où elle se fait son propre résultat.</p> <p>Si vous deviez écrire ceci, vous sauriez l'admiration courbée avec laquelle je lis des phrases comme « élément dynamique nécessaire de la vérité » pour décrire l'erreur ; et la majesté, la complétude de l'expression « la vérité ne peut être que là où elle se fait son propre résultat ». Le prolétariat lui-même mettra en pièces le stalinisme. Cette expérience lui apprendra sa dernière leçon, que l'avenir est en lui-même, et non en quoi que ce soit qui prétend le représenter ou le diriger.</p> <p>C'est ce que les gens écrivent avec désinvolture comme thèse, antithèse et synthèse. Qui a jamais compris ça ? Peut-être que beaucoup d'autres personnes l'ont bien compris et j'étais juste stupide. Mais il m'a fallu très, très longtemps pour le voir, pour l'avoir dans mes os, pour en avoir un « simple aperçu » partout, en tout. Qu'est ce que je dis ? La chose m'échappe constamment, mais je la chasse. Quelques choses de grande importance peuvent être dites à la fois, une générale et une particulière.</p> <p>Par cette doctrine, Hegel se débarrasse de cette tendance à ignorer la réalité ou à se laisser submerger par elle, qui rôde toujours pour tenir notre mouvement à la gorge. Il avait le plus grand mépris pour les gens qui essayaient d'écarter le dur, le cruel, le béton amer, le mal apparemment pur. C'est le chemin, et le seul moyen pour que la vérité et le bien viennent. Ainsi pouvait-il dire que le réel était rationnel. Si mauvaise que soit la réalité, elle avait sa place, sa fonction dans le schéma du développement.</p> <p>Le grand idéaliste, l'homme de l'Esprit-Monde, etc., ne dépendait pas concrètement de l'Esprit-Monde pour enseigner quoi que ce soit aux gens. Par conséquent, il était le dernier homme à s'attendre à ce que les gens soient inspirés, qu'ils voient la lumière, qu'ils « reconnaissent » que « nous » avions raison tout le temps, ou pire encore, qu'ils soient « éduqués » par quelques personnes douées. En fait, il croyait que l'Esprit, la connaissance consciente, n'était l'affaire que de quelques philosophes. Dans la mesure où de grandes masses ou classes de gens ont appris quelque chose, ils l'ont appris concrètement en luttant contre quelque chose de concret. La doctrine de Hegel était réactionnaire mais ce n'est pas ce qui nous intéresse ici. Ce qui nous préoccupe, c'est ceci. Il aurait ri pour mépriser l'idée qu'un parti quelconque enseignerait aux masses l'activité créatrice libre. Il aurait plutôt dit : ils se retrouveront inévitablement face à un tel système d'oppression, de bureaucratie,manipulation et corruption dans leur propre arène, leur propre existence, qu'ils devront surmonter pour vivre, et l'activité créatrice libre ne peut naître que lorsqu'elle est confrontée à quelque chose que seule l'activité libre et seule l'activité libre peut surmonter. C'est le point de transition vers un stade supérieur de l'existence. Il n'y en a pas d'autre. Les bureaucraties staliniennes deviennent ainsi une étape de développement. L'activité créatrice libre devient infiniment plus concrète dans nos têtes. Notre conception du socialisme change et nous voyons la dure réalité différemment.C'est le point de transition vers un stade supérieur de l'existence. Il n'y en a pas d'autre. Les bureaucraties staliniennes deviennent ainsi une étape de développement. L'activité créatrice libre devient infiniment plus concrète dans nos têtes. Notre conception du socialisme change et nous voyons la dure réalité différemment. C'est le point de transition vers un stade supérieur de l'existence. Il n'y en a pas d'autre. Les bureaucraties staliniennes deviennent ainsi une étape de développement. L'activité créatrice libre devient infiniment plus concrète dans nos têtes. Notre conception du socialisme change et nous voyons la dure réalité différemment.</p> <p>Et enfin, notez que la Logique elle-même se déplace par cette méthode d'opposition, de transition, d'opportunité. Son analyse de l'identité, de la variété, de l'opposition, du fondement, de l'actualité, etc., particulièrement dans la Doctrine de l'Essence, représente toujours, nous dit-il, des couples de corrélatifs. L'un d'eux devient écrasant, il menace de perturber tout le processus, l'autre le surmonte, et nous nous retrouvons plus loin. C'est ainsi que l'identité se divise en différence ; la différence apparaît comme de la variété, mais la variété, la variété, la variété partout n'a aucun sens ; ou bien la variété multiple se désagrège en folie (et cela arrive ; cela veut seulement dire que l'objet comme tel prend fin) ou cette variété multiple se cristallise en opposition. Etc. Je pense qu'on a une place. Revenons maintenant au reste de la page.J'attache une grande importance méthodologique à cette page. Entre autres raisons, j'ai sur ma conscience la façon dont je saute d'un endroit à l'autre et les sauts encore plus gros que je vais faire. (Hegel ne se fâcherait pas trop. Il dirait : Cette impertinence de James, ce mal incontestable est un point de transition nécessaire à certaines personnes pour qu'elles lisent tout le livre.) Les trente pages de Ground que je sauterai probablement sont sur ma conscience. Mais cette page en dit long qui couvrira Terrain (j'espère). Alors voilà. Je pense que je vais écrire librement et ensuite citer longuement.ce mal certain est un point de transition nécessaire à certaines personnes pour qu'elles lisent tout le livre.) Les trente pages de Ground que je sauterai probablement sont sur ma conscience. Mais cette page en dit long qui couvrira Terrain (j'espère). Alors voilà. Je pense que je vais écrire librement et ensuite citer longuement.ce mal certain est un point de transition nécessaire à certaines personnes pour qu'elles lisent tout le livre.) Les trente pages de Ground que je sauterai probablement sont sur ma conscience. Mais cette page en dit long qui couvrira Terrain (j'espère). Alors voilà. Je pense que je vais écrire librement et ensuite citer longuement.</p> <p>Chaque concept là-bas a ces mouvements opposés. On devient répréhensible, mauvais, et cela forme le pont, la transition, pour que la vraie nature du concept, se montre. Mais quand ce dépassement a lieu, que se passe-t-il ? La nouveauté est une contradiction résolue. C'est ça, n'est-ce pas ? Le bernsteinisme a été vaincu. Cette contradiction est résolue. Mais dans la mesure où la nature complète de l'organisme n'a pas été révélée, c'est-à-dire que le socialisme n'a pas encore été atteint, le léninisme contient une nouvelle contradiction. Or cette chose (pardonnez-moi, amis philosophes – bon sang, je n'ai pas besoin de pardon, je viens de voir que Hegel lui-même l'appelle « chose »). . . maintenant cette chose qui produit toujours des contradictions, les résout, et puis trouve de nouvelles contradictions, c'est le sujet ou le concept. Ce n'est pas encore terminé, l'Absolu concret, c'est-à-dire le prolétariat, conscient de lui-même, agissant de lui-même, commençant la véritable histoire de l'humanité. Les ouvriers russes ne l'étaient pas en 1917. Il est donc fini, encore limité. Donc contradictoire. Il a encore la négation devant lui. La multiplicité finie, limitée, dont elle se compose, a une certaine identité, une unité. Mais elle constitue une variété, et on voit cette variété se former en opposition ; nous avons une contradiction. Mais en tout cas, il est une fois de plus unifié, prêt pour l'entreprise d'une nouvelle division et d'une nouvelle négation. (Vous vous souvenez du dernier extrait de la Phénoménologie ?) Ces étapes d'unification de la contradiction résolue lorsque l'Essence se prépare à la négation nous montrent quelle est la vraie nature de la chose – son Fond. Le fait qu'il continue à trouver des Terres plus élevées et plus riches,c'est son Essence. Chaque fois qu'il met en place une bonne étape concrète forte de contradiction résolue, nous pouvons voir quel est son fondement.</p> <p>Au contraire, toute détermination, tout concret, tout concept est essentiellement une union de moments distingués et distinguables, qui passent à travers la différence déterminée et essentielle en moments contradictoires.</p> <p>Il est vrai que cette concrétion contradictoire se résout en rien – elle repasse dans son unité négative. Or la chose, le sujet ou le concept n'est lui-même que cette unité négative : il est contradictoire en soi, mais aussi il est résolu Contradiction ; c'est le Fond qui contient et soutient ses déterminations. La chose, le sujet ou le concept, comme intro-réfracté dans sa sphère, est sa Contradiction résolue ; mais toute sa sphère est encore déterminée et diverse ; elle est donc finie, et cela veut dire contradictoire. Elle-même n'est pas la résolution de cette contradiction supérieure ; mais il a une sphère supérieure pour son unité négative ou Fond. En conséquence, les choses finies dans la multiplicité indifférente sont simplement ce fait, que, contradictoires en elles-mêmes, elles s'intro-réfractent et repassent dans leur Fond.</p> <p>Voici maintenant un superbe morceau d'analyse, le maestro à son meilleur. Je m'abstiendrai encore une fois de l'analyse article par article, aussi difficile soit-elle. J'interpréterai librement et vous aurez le passage. Matthew Arnold dans une critique célèbre dit que vous devriez connaître certains passages de la poésie par cœur et les laisser agir comme un test et une pierre de touche pour d'autres poésies. La méthode a ses dangers, mais dans l'ensemble elle est bonne. Avec la Logic, c'est encore plus vrai. Vous devez avoir des passages que vous allez lire et relire. Ils sont plus qu'un test. Ils sont une main courante. Avec les passages plus complexes, étant occupé par d'autres choses, j'oublie ce que je sais. Je dois patiemment me rééduquer. Ces longues citations, dans un contexte, avec des exemples de matériel familier servent aussi à cet objectif.Vous commencez à comprendre et à utiliser la Logique lorsque vous les lisez et commencez à creuser avec eux dans votre propre matériel. Base : la Preuve de l'Absolu.</p> <p>Nous avons (continue Hegel) inféré la nécessité d'un mouvement essentiel, continu, infini de l'observation et de l'analyse d'une série fixe et limitée de déterminations. Nous aurons à examiner cette procédure plus tard. Mais nous devons nous rappeler que nous ne faisons pas cette inférence parce que l'être, la détermination, persiste, devient un Fond, se brise, devient un autre Fond, étant à peu près le même tout le temps. Pas du tout. C'est parce que la détermination limitée, finie, s'effondre et se transcende constamment que nous pouvons inférer un mouvement continu.</p> <p>Arrêtons-nous ici une minute. Ce n'est pas une Internationale qui essaie une certaine forme, et quand ça échoue, essaie une autre forme, et quand ça échoue, essaie une autre forme (pas les mêmes personnes bien sûr, mais la même organisation). Non. Nous n'avons pu en tirer aucune conclusion. La Première Internationale est une entité. Il s'effondre. Un nouveau se forme, et cela nous montre le Fondement de ces formations. Elle a la même finalité et la même finalité que la première, quoique désormais enrichie, développée, concrétisée. Cela s'effondre. Un nouveau est formé. Ainsi, quelle que soit la forme qu'il puisse prendre accidentellement (contingence), on voit qu'il lui pose quelque chose de fondamental, c'est-à-dire montre que ce quelque chose apparaîtra au cours de la négation du fini.</p> <p>Dans la pensée ordinaire, la Forme, les Internationales qui apparaissent constamment, semblent être un jour le Fond de notre idée d'un socialisme international pleinement développé et concret. L'Idée Absolue existe parce que les concrétions finies continuent d'apparaître. Non, dit Hegel (et il a raison comme je vais le démontrer dans un instant). Le conception Absolue existe précisément parce que les Internationales finies s'effondrent toujours. La première pensée de bon sens dit : l'apparition continue des Internationales montre qu'il y a un Absolu. La dialectique hégélienne dit : le fait que toutes ces Internationales manquent de tant, luttent et s'effondrent, c'est la preuve de l'existence d'un absolu. Nous n'ajoutons pas les différents et arrivons à une conclusion. Non. Alors que nous les regardons s'efforcer, échouer mais toujours s'incorporer, nous reconnaissons qu'ils expriment un mouvement vers quelque chose avant leur apparition contingente.</p> <p>J'ai l'impression d'avoir un peu vulgarisé cela : vous allez lire par vous-même. Hegel a affaire ici à un problème strictement philosophique et ce que j'ai écrit est horratoire. Cela ne me dérange pas vraiment parce qu'il va revenir là-dessus et le temps qu'il en ait fini, tous nos adversaires reculeront devant la discussion. J'ai la certitude que la vérité du problème philosophique posé est contenue dans ma vulgarisation, et que Hegel l'a derrière la tête. Vous ne pouvez pas prouver l'inévitabilité ou la certitude simplement à partir de la répétition du concret.</p> <p>Vous ne pouvez pas prouver l'inévitabilité ou la certitude à partir d'une série constante de faits empiriques, même si souvent répétés. Que le soleil se soit levé tous les jours depuis un million d'années n'est pas une preuve qu'il se lèvera demain. Pour une certitude absolue, vous devez avoir une conception philosophique, qui a sa propre base inébranlable. Hegel recherchait l'étanchéité logique dans l'Esprit-Monde. Marx l'a trouvé dans son concept philosophique de la nature de l'activité humaine. Je suppose que Hegel dit ici que l'Essence est un mouvement et nous pouvons être sûrs qu'elle cherche un Absolu parce que chaque forme est finie, cherchant quelque chose de plus. Mais si votre preuve de l'Absolu est l'apparence simplement finie, alors chaque limitation, chaque effondrement qui n'est pas une résolution immédiate et évidente de la contradiction dans la Base est un coup terrible. Mais pour sauter un peu, si tu as l'Absolu dans la tête,car c'est à cela que cela revient, alors la finitude, les limitations, etc., deviennent des étapes du progrès, et surtout du progrès de la pensée. Il est évident qu'il s'agit ici de l'inéluctabilité du socialisme. Nous avons vu cette faiblesse contre laquelle Hegel met en garde ces dernières années si près de chez nous et dans des lieux si hauts que nous pouvons y consacrer un peu plus de temps.</p> <p>Hegel savait qu'il fallait avoir une certitude qui ne dépende pas de déterminations et de catégories fixes limitées. Cela devait dépendre d'autre chose, et c'est, en dernière analyse, ce qui l'a conduit à World-Spirit. Ailleurs, nous avons traité l'inévitabilité du socialisme comme une nécessité de la pensée logique en termes dialectiques. Mais il est sage de rappeler ici que cette nécessité d'avoir un but ultime entre votre stade actuel en tant que pôles jumeaux entre lesquels vos pensées doivent se déplacer, c'est aussi le produit de l'expérience. Les philosophes et les grands hommes d'action ont toujours pensé ainsi. Peu de choses sont plus amusantes que le passage des Corinthiens, I.15, qui est lu aux services funéraires épiscopaliens. La « fatalité du socialisme » de saint Paul était que les morts ressuscitent.Il semble que certains radicaux fatigués de Corinthe se soient moqués des camarades là-bas, leur demandant : Vous croyez à la résurrection des morts ? Comment les morts ressuscitent-ils et avec quel corps viennent-ils ? Paul a déchaîné toutes ses forces et c'est un tour de force de rhétorique magnifique, de sophisme et de conviction passionnée. Il a dit à brûle-pourpoint : Laisse tomber ça et tout le reste s'en va.</p> <p>Les puritains étaient pareils. C'était ordonné, disaient-ils. Même chose avec les philosophes du XVIIIe siècle. Débarrassez-vous simplement de la réaction et la raison inhérente à toutes choses prendra le dessus. C'est le mérite, non la faiblesse de Hegel, d'avoir vu la nécessité de lui donner un fondement logique solide. Les empiristes l'appellent téléologie, religion et toutes sortes de noms abusifs. J'en ai traité dans Le Matérialisme dialectique et le destin de l'humanité, et j'ai montré les contradictions dans lesquelles ils se trouvent.</p> <p>Voici l'extrait final.</p> <p>« La nature de la véritable inférence d'une Essence absolument nécessaire à partir d'une entité finie et contingente sera examinée ci-dessous. Une telle essence ne s'infère pas de l'entité finie et contingente comme d'un Être qui à la fois est et reste Fondé, mais, comme l'implique aussi immédiatement la contingence, cette nécessité absolue se déduit d'un Être simplement effondré et se contredisant - ou plutôt il est démontré que l'Etre contingent repasse automatiquement dans son Fond, où il se transcende – et, de plus, dans cette régression il pose le Fond de telle manière seulement qu'il se fait l'élément posé. Dans une inférence ordinaire, l'Être du fini apparaît comme le Fond de l'absolu : l'absolu est parce que le fini est. La vérité, cependant,est que l'absolu est juste parce que le fini est une opposition auto-contradictoire – juste parce qu'il ne l'est pas. Dans le premier sens, une inférence s'exprime ainsi : l'être du fini est l'être de l'absolu ; – mais dans ce dernier : Le Non-être du fini est l'Être de l'absolu. »</p> <p>J'espère que vous l'aurez compris. Je pense que c'est un bel exemple de la méthode de Hegel. C'est tout ce que nous pouvons faire : donner une idée de ce qu'est Ground et pourquoi c'est nécessaire. L'essence est un mouvement. C'est l'analyse de la Terre qui nous dit exactement ce qu'est ce mouvement : Notre petit esprit abstrait qui ne savait pas ce qu'il était par ses devenirs futiles était en train d'établir peu à peu une Terre. Si vous voulez plus de Ground, c'est là.</p> <h2 class="spip">Lénine, relecteur et intermédiaire de la pensée de Hegel</h2> <p>L'ESSENCE EST UN MOUVEMENT DE NÉGATION</p> <p>Je me sens coupable comme l'enfer. Nous n'en sommes plus qu'à la p. 80 d'Essence. Je passe à côté de Ground en regardant fermement de l'autre côté. Substance, Nécessité, Réciprocité, je vais passer à côté d'eux. Je ferai quelques notes strictement ad hoc sur l'apparence et l'actualité, puis sur le concept. Mais passons en revue un peu, puis cherchons de l'aide. Nous avons affaire à la pensée. Nous avons appris à regarder la qualité d'une chose et son mouvement dialectique vers autre chose. Nous avons alors vu que lorsque nous l'avons regardé, ce que nous avons vu n'était pas une photographie, une identité. Non, nous avons vu la différence dans l'identité et l'identité dans la différence. Nous avons vu aussi qu'il y avait dans nos têtes une Idée qui nous a permis de distinguer les différences spécifiques. Nous avons vu l'importance de la contradiction, la relation fondamentale du bien et du mal, de la vérité et de l'erreur, le processus de transition.L'objet ne passe pas à autre chose ; il montre l'Autre contenu en lui. Nous apprenons à examiner un objet et à examiner des pensées sur un objet. Ground est-il la prochaine transition après Contradiction ? L'Apparence naît-elle inévitablement de l'Existence ? Je doute que Hegel maintienne tout cela en détail. Ces déterminations dans l'Essence sont, il faut le rappeler, des Déterminations de la Réflexion. Ce sont des créations de la pensée, mais des créations qui reflètent l'objet, permettent de le démonter et de le reconstituer, et d'abord dans notre tête. Nous allons au concept de Concept – le concept de la chose. Nous l'inquiétons comme un chien s'inquiète d'un os. C'est ce que l'Essence enseigne.Ground est-il la prochaine transition après Contradiction ? L'Apparence naît-elle inévitablement de l'Existence ? Je doute que Hegel maintienne tout cela en détail. Ces déterminations dans l'Essence sont, il faut le rappeler, des Déterminations de la Réflexion. Ce sont des créations de la pensée, mais des créations qui reflètent l'objet, permettent de le démonter et de le reconstituer, et d'abord dans notre tête. Nous allons au concept de Concept – le concept de la chose. Nous l'inquiétons comme un chien s'inquiète d'un os. C'est ce que l'Essence enseigne.Ground est-il la prochaine transition après Contradiction ? L'Apparence naît-elle inévitablement de l'Existence ? Je doute que Hegel maintienne tout cela en détail. Ces déterminations dans l'Essence sont, il faut le rappeler, des Déterminations de la Réflexion. Ce sont des créations de la pensée, mais des créations qui reflètent l'objet, permettent de le démonter et de le reconstituer, et d'abord dans notre tête. Nous allons au concept de Concept – le concept de la chose. Nous l'inquiétons comme un chien s'inquiète d'un os. C'est ce que l'Essence enseigne.</p> <p>Mais avant d'aborder les concepts d'Apparence et d'Actualité, nous ferions bien de voir quelle intelligence remarquable, formée dans la même sphère que nous avons été formée, faite de la Logique, et d'examiner sa pensée dans cette perspective. Nous avons besoin d'un peu de repos. L'essence est la partie la plus difficile de la Logique, dit Hegel, et nous avons encore un long chemin à parcourir.</p> <p>Lénine en 1914 se retrouve à Zurich, avec le monde qu'il a connu et ses catégories qui se brisent. Il ne s'est pas enthousiasmé et a commencé à faire la révolution par lui-même. Il avait une politique et il s'est battu pour cela, mais il a reconnu que tout était dans un creuset. Il écrivit surtout L'impérialisme et l'État et la révolution. Il a étudié la phénoménologie de l'esprit et a travaillé à Hegelian Logic. Il a pris des notes sur la Logique. Nous avons des extraits et des commentaires. Sidney Hook m'a dit un jour qu'il n'y avait pas grand-chose pour eux. Tout à fait raison. Pour lui, il n'y avait pas grand-chose. Le mouvement marxiste ne jure que par. . . Plékhanov. Je me souviens de mes voyages entre le Missouri et New York, m'arrêtant à Washington et Rae, appelant une traduction à vue des notes russes de Lénine et que je les ai griffonnées. J'ai toujours le cahier.Qu'ils ne soient pas publiés signifie une chose : le mépris des masses. Oui, justement. Ils n'en ont pas besoin, ils ne sont pas à la hauteur. Et donc le parti n'en a pas besoin. Ce n'est que lorsque vous avez du respect pour les masses que vous avez du respect pour le parti. Il n'y a rien dans ces notes pour Hook l'académicien. Il y a beaucoup pour nous à voir ce qui a frappé l'esprit du grand révolutionnaire alors qu'il lisait, avec les années de bolchevisme russe emmagasinées dans son esprit et la perspective de la révolution mondiale devant lui. Il n'y a de la place que pour quelques choses. Mais ils se démarquent.Il y a beaucoup pour nous à voir ce qui a frappé l'esprit du grand révolutionnaire alors qu'il lisait, avec les années de bolchevisme russe emmagasinées dans son esprit et la perspective de la révolution mondiale devant lui. Il n'y a de la place que pour quelques choses. Mais ils se démarquent.Il y a beaucoup pour nous à voir ce qui a frappé l'esprit du grand révolutionnaire alors qu'il lisait, avec les années de bolchevisme russe emmagasinées dans son esprit et la perspective de la révolution mondiale devant lui. Il n'y a de la place que pour quelques choses. Mais ils se démarquent.</p> <p>En lisant sur Qualité dans la doctrine de l'être, Lénine écrit en très gros caractères :</p> <p>SAUT</p> <p>SAUT</p> <p>SAUT</p> <p>SAUT</p> <p>Cela l'a visiblement touché de plein fouet. Il voulait que ça reste gravé dans sa tête, qu'il s'en souvienne toujours. Il note dessus comme suit :</p> <p>« A la base du concept de gradation de l'émergence se trouve l'idée que l'émergence est déjà sensible ou réellement dans l'existence, uniquement à cause de sa petitesse pas encore perceptible et de même avec le concept de la gradation de la disparition. »</p> <p>Regardons l'extrait lui-même :</p> <p>« La progressivité de l'apparition est basée sur l'idée que ce qui se produit est déjà, sensiblement ou autrement, réellement là, et n'est imperceptible qu'en raison de sa petitesse ; et la progressivité de l'évanouissement sur l'idée que le Non-être ou l'Autre qui prend également sa place est là, seulement, n'est pas encore perceptible ; là, non au sens où l'Autre est contenu dans l'Autre qui est là en soi, mais qu'il est là comme Être Déterminé, seulement imperceptible. Ceci annule totalement l'apparition et la disparition : ou l'En-soi, ce quelque peu intérieur dans lequel quelque chose est avant d'atteindre l'Être Déterminé, est transmuté en une petitesse d'Être Déterminé externe et la distinction essentielle ou conceptuelle en une différence externe et simplement magnitudinale.Le procédé qui rend concevables l'apparition et la disparition de la lenteur du changement est ennuyeux à la manière propre à la tautologie ; ce qui surgit ou disparaît est préparé d'avance, et le changement est transformé en simple changement d'une distinction extérieure ; et maintenant c'est bien une simple tautologie. La difficulté pour une telle Compréhension qui tente de concevoir consiste dans le passage qualitatif de quelque chose en son Autre en général et en son contraire ; L'entendement préfère croire que l'identité et le changement sont de ce genre indifférent et extérieur qui s'applique au quantitatif.La difficulté pour une telle Compréhension qui tente de concevoir consiste dans le passage qualitatif de quelque chose en son Autre en général et en son contraire ; L'entendement préfère croire que l'identité et le changement sont de ce genre indifférent et extérieur qui s'applique au quantitatif.La difficulté pour une telle Compréhension qui tente de concevoir consiste dans le passage qualitatif de quelque chose en son Autre en général et en son contraire ; L'entendement préfère croire que l'identité et le changement sont de ce genre indifférent et extérieur qui s'applique au quantitatif.</p> <p>Comprendre une fois de plus prend les coups. C'est un passage d'une grande importance et Lénine l'a parfaitement résumé avec son SAUT SAUT SAUT SAUT. La nouveauté SAUT. Vous ne le regardez pas et ne le voyez pas petit et grandir. Il est là, mais il existe d'abord dans la pensée. La pensée sait qu'elle est l'objet. Vous n'avez pas à le voir (bien que si vous savez qu'il est là, vous pouvez voir des signes et les signaler). Hegel s'ennuie aux larmes des gens qui continuent à chercher des signes extérieurs et « le simple magnitudinal » comme preuve. Lénine ne s'y est pas attaché pour rien. Il a dit : « Transformez la guerre impérialiste en guerre civile. Combien d'opposants sincères à l'impérialisme reculèrent d'horreur. "Trop téméraire, trop grossier, pas maintenant." (Trotsky était parmi eux). Lénine ne bougera pas.Le mouvement socialiste contre l'impérialisme s'établirait sur la transition concrète – l'opposition au mal monstrueux de la guerre. Il n'a pas eu à attendre pour voir quoi que ce soit. C'était là. Il sauterait vers le haut. »</p> <p>J'ai été particulièrement frappé par cela chez Lénine. Hegel est très irritant. Il s'en tient à la méthode. Il ne crie pas. Mais chacune de ses transitions implique un saut. Il parle très doucement d'impulsion, etc. Mais vous pouvez continuer à lire pendant longtemps et ne pas saisir la véritable signification du saut. Je ne l'ai pas souligné. Il s'y est accroché.</p> <p>Sur la Doctrine de l'Essence, Lénine s'attache précisément à la même chose. Regardez cette note remarquable sur l'observation 3.</p> <p>Mouvement et « mouvement de soi » (NB ceci. Un mouvement spontané indépendant, nécessaire intérieurement), « altération », « mouvement et vie », « principe de chaque mouvement de soi », « impulsion », (pulsion) au « mouvement » et à « l'activité » – à l'opposé de « l'être mort » – qui croirait que c'est là le noyau de « l'hégélianisme », de l'hégélianisme abstrait et abscons (difficile, absurde ?). Nous devons découvrir ce noyau, le saisir, le « sauver », le dévoiler, le purifier – ce que Marx et Engels ont également accompli.</p> <p>C'est quelque chose de vital. Auto-mouvement. Activité spontanée. Nous les rencontrerons à nouveau. Tu attends. C'est à cela qu'il faut s'accrocher, saisir, « dévoiler, purifier ». On peut dire qu'on en a fait. Ce mouvement, activité, spontané, intérieurement nécessaire. L'homme d'organisation savait ce qui faisait bouger le monde, surtout le monde social. Hegel pouvait écrire sur les pensées pendant des décennies, mais c'était la motivation, et cela a fait des LEAPS (quatre d'entre eux à la fois).</p> <p>Sur l'observation 3, voir les notes entre autres :</p> <p>NB 1. La perception habituelle comprend la différence et la contradiction mais pas le passage de l'une à l'autre, qui pourtant est le plus important.</p> <p>Nous reviendrons encore à Lénine. Mais asseyons-nous et écrivons en gros caractères sur nos notes : SAUT, ACTIVITÉ SPONTANÉE, MOUVEMENT SOI, etc. etc. Là où il l'a écrit quatre fois, nous devrions l'écrire quarante-quatre. Le point passé de Lénine est important non seulement en lui-même mais pour nous, dans cette étude. Et ça vient juste ici.</p> <p>Ces dernières notes de Lénine que nous devons reprendre seront assez longues. C'est parce qu'ils ont une valeur énorme pour nous, (a) en eux-mêmes en tant que revue du passé, (b) en tant qu'enseignement de l'interdépendance des différentes parties de la Logique et de l'unité sous-jacente de la méthode à toutes les étapes, (c) éclairer les parties finales de la Doctrine de l'Essence à venir, (d) nous montrer la méthode hégélienne de pensée et d'action de Lénine : c'est-à-dire d'un révolutionnaire et (e) nous préparer à la dernière étape historique de cet essai : le propre travail de Lénine , pour laquelle et à partir de laquelle seules nous pouvons sauter et voler pour nous-mêmes.</p> <p>C'est une bouchée mais chaque morceau est juteux. Et j'espère que personne n'est impatient. Voyons où nous en sommes. Nous avons appliqué la Doctrine de l'Essence jusqu'au sol. Nous avons discuté de la question de savoir comment vous arrivez à l'Inévitable, l'Absolu. Nous avons promis de ne considérer que l'apparence et l'actualité comme deux étapes supplémentaires du concept. Nous sommes ensuite entrés dans un intermède et une revue léninistes. Nous avons vu l'accent mis par Lénine sur le LEAP (quatre fois) ; et en mouvement constant, auto-activité spontanée intérieurement nécessaire. Nous avons noté que toute la Logique elle-même, les transitions continues de ce Fond à ce Fond, à l'autre Fond au Fond Complet, n'étaient que cette activité continue, spontanée et autogénérée, bien que l'activité ait un certain ordre dont il s'agissait. Pensé pour s'organiser selon les lois qui y sont immanentes, c'est-à-direles lois de son propre développement. Bon. Nous allons maintenant reprendre une note de Lénine qui ouvrait une formidable perspective de bénéfices, tant pour le bilan passé que pour les développements futurs. Qui est maintenant fatigué peut se reposer, et après une sieste, peut repartir à zéro. Allons-y.</p> <p>La note elle-même est très légère. Il découle de la section I de la plus large Logique de la qualité. Ça dit :</p> <p>« L'idée de la transformation de l'idéal en réel est profonde ; très important pour l'histoire. Mais aussi dans la vie personnelle d'un homme, il est évident qu'il y a là beaucoup de vérité. Contre le matérialisme vulgaire. NB : La différence entre idée et matière n'est en aucun cas inconditionnelle, ni extravagante. »</p> <p>C'est tout. J'ai recherché la section et l'ai parcourue à nouveau. Il fait une centaine de pages. C'est dans la Doctrine de l'Être, remarquez, la première section, en fait, le vrai début de la Logique.</p> <p>Hegel est aux prises avec des mots qu'il a toujours en tête, finis et infinis. Quel est le vrai infini ? « Finite » est une détermination ou une catégorie fixe et limitée. L'infini n'est pas simplement quelque chose qui est au-delà du fini. Ce qu'il dit n'est rien, un mauvais infini. (Mettre de l'ordre dans vos muscles de la pensée. Asseyez-vous et prenez note). L'infini n'est pas quelque chose en général qui soit au-delà de ce que nous appelons actuel. C'est le fait que l'au-delà du fini revienne, accomplisse un retour au fini et continue à le faire, qui en fait un véritable infini. L'au-delà, l'infini, n'est pas l'Être abstrait ou indéterminé, quelque chose dont nous ne savons rien, notre vieux monstre, le Rien. Lui, l'infini, l'au-delà, c'est l'Être lié à lui-même, car pour naître du tout l'infini va devoir nier le fini. C'est donc une force de négation.Et tout ce qui nie est quelque chose de présent. Si l'on peut utiliser ici une métaphore : l'infini est l'Autre du fini. Mais l'Infini n'est pas la négation en général. C'est le mauvais infini qui nie l'existant et ne met rien à sa place. C'est de la fantaisie vague, du caprice et du non-sens (ou une simple réflexion). Le socialisme n'est pas une image vague et rose de beauté infinie, de vérité et d'amour, quelque chose au-delà de notre misérable vie. Le socialisme, l'au-delà, est la négation concrète de ce que nous avons – le stalinisme. Le dépassement du stalinisme est la prochaine étape de l'infini – et pour ma part la classe ouvrière aujourd'hui quand elle vainc le stalinisme, c'est-à-dire la « capitalisation » du concept de parti prolétarien, cette classe ouvrière, l'ayant surmontée, est vraiment socialiste. D'ailleurs, quand il vainc son principal ennemi, le capital, et les brutalités du fascisme, l'inflation,la guerre impérialiste, les éléments destructeurs, les éléments de classe dans l'industrie moderne, c'est le socialisme – le seul infini qui soit. Mais pourquoi l'infini reste-t-il pour certains un Au-delà, un très lointain ? Et puis vient un coup de grâce. C'est, en dernière analyse, « fondé sur le fait que le fini en tant que tel est tenu pour existant ». C'est la mentalité qui voit le socialisme au loin et qui est vraiment enchaînée à l'idée que ce que veulent les travailleurs, c'est un niveau de vie plus élevé, "un seau plein", "la paix", "la sécurité", "le plein emploi" . Il n'a fait que s'accrocher à l'existant, le rendre tolérable en colmatant les trous. C'est la prochaine étape du socialisme. Shachtman est ce type complet. L'opposition, le socialisme qui réside dans la lutte et le dépassement du stalinisme le dépasse. Mais cela n'épuise pas le type.À l'autre extrémité de son échelle se trouve Trotsky. Il s'accroche à un autre type d'existant, le monde de 1917. Après vingt et un ans de révolution russe, tout ce qu'il pouvait dire était : ranimer les soviets ; réviser le plan dans l'intérêt des travailleurs ; libérer les syndicats. Si Shachtman est Imagination, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier, Trotsky est Compréhension, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier. Pour les deux, l'étape suivante est exclue. Oui, à tous les deux. Et précisément à cause de cela, le présent leur échappe. Ainsi de bonne heure, au commencement, dans la Qualité, dans la Doctrine de l'Être, Hegel disait, en général, à un niveau très abstrait, ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans le Doctrine du concept.Après vingt et un ans de révolution russe, tout ce qu'il pouvait dire était : ranimer les soviets ; réviser le plan dans l'intérêt des travailleurs ; libérer les syndicats. Si Shachtman est Imagination, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier, Trotsky est Compréhension, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier. Pour les deux, l'étape suivante est exclue. Oui, à tous les deux. Et précisément à cause de cela, le présent leur échappe. Ainsi de bonne heure, au commencement, dans la Qualité, dans la Doctrine de l'Être, Hegel disait, en général, à un niveau très abstrait, ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans le Doctrine du concept.Après vingt et un ans de révolution russe, tout ce qu'il pouvait dire était : ranimer les soviets ; réviser le plan dans l'intérêt des travailleurs ; libérer les syndicats. Si Shachtman est Imagination, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier, Trotsky est Compréhension, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier. Pour les deux, l'étape suivante est exclue. Oui, à tous les deux. Et justement à cause de cela, le présent leur échappe. Ainsi de bonne heure, au commencement, dans la Qualité, dans la Doctrine de l'Être, Hegel disait, en général, à un niveau très abstrait, ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans le Doctrine du concept.qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier, Trotsky est Compréhension, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier. Pour les deux, l'étape suivante est exclue. Oui, à tous les deux. Et précisément à cause de cela, le présent leur échappe. Ainsi de bonne heure, au commencement, dans la Qualité, dans la Doctrine de l'Être, Hegel disait, en général, à un niveau très abstrait, ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans le Doctrine du concept.qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier, Trotsky est Compréhension, qui ne pense qu'avec ce qui lui est familier. Pour les deux, l'étape suivante est exclue. Oui, à tous les deux. Et précisément à cause de cela, le présent leur échappe. Ainsi de bonne heure, au commencement, dans la Qualité, dans la Doctrine de l'Être, Hegel disait, en général, à un niveau très abstrait, ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans le Doctrine du concept.ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans la Doctrine du concept.ce qu'il dira à un niveau plus développé dans l'Essence, et à un niveau encore plus élevé dans la Doctrine du Concept.</p> <p>Voici donc l'extrait complet. L'expression « progresser vers l'infini » est caractéristique de ceux qui ne voient pas la vraie nature de l'infini. Ils voient l'infini comme une ligne droite. Hegel dit que c'est une série de cercles, chaque cercle, cependant, incluant et excluant pourtant le cercle précédent, ainsi :</p> <p>« Cet infini est le retour accompli sur lui-même. En tant que tel, c'est la relation à soi ou l'Être ; mais pas l'Être abstrait ou indéterminé, car il est posé comme négation négationniste ; et ainsi c'est aussi l'Être Déterminé, car il contient la négation comme telle, et, par conséquent, la déterminité. Il existe, et existe en tant qu'Être Déterminé, présent et avant nous. Ce n'est que le mauvais infini qui est l'au-delà, parce qu'il est la négation, et rien de plus, du fini posé comme réel ; elle est donc abstraite et première négation ; il est déterminé comme simplement négatif, et est sans l'affirmation implicite dans l'Être Déterminé ; et s'il est maintenu comme un simple négatif, il est même supposé être inexistant et hors de portée. Mais être ainsi hors d'atteinte n'est pas sa gloire mais sa honte ; qui, en définitive, repose sur le fait que le fini en tant que tel est tenu pour existant.Ce qui est faux est hors de portée ; et il est évident qu'un tel infini est le faux. L'image du « progrès vers l'infini » est la ligne droite, l'infini restant encore à ses deux limites et là seulement où la ligne n'est pas ; or la ligne est l'Etre Déterminé, qui passe à celui-ci son contradictoire, c'est-à-dire dans l'indéterminé. Mais comme infini véritable, replié sur lui-même, il a pour image le cercle, la ligne qui s'est atteinte, fermée et toute présente et n'ayant ni commencement ni fin.dans l'indéterminé. Mais comme infini véritable, replié sur lui-même, il a pour image le cercle, la ligne qui s'est atteinte, fermée et toute présente et n'ayant ni commencement ni fin.dans l'indéterminé. Mais comme infini véritable, replié sur lui-même, il a pour image le cercle, la ligne qui s'est atteinte, fermée et toute présente et n'ayant ni commencement ni fin. »</p> <p>Ceci dit, il continue à dire les choses les plus étonnantes, pour ceux qui pensent en termes de bon sens. Il dit, par exemple, que ce n'est pas le fini, le fixe limité, le concret, qui est réel. C'est l'Infini qui est réel. Et j'espère que personne qui lit ceci n'est assez stupide pour ne pas se rendre compte que c'est le point même que nous avons creusé sur Terre où nous avons discuté de l'Absolu en termes d'Être et de Non-Être du fini. Pourtant, c'est le volume II, page 70, et c'est le volume I, page 162. Il y a environ quatre cents pages entre les deux. N'est-il pas merveilleux ? Et bien loin au centre du tome II, il y reviendra, et finira une fois de plus avec lui dans la dernière section, sur les méthodes d'enquête, ou l'Idée de la cognition. Il pratique lui-même les cercles sans cesse agrandis.</p> <p>L'infini véritable ainsi pris, en général, comme l'Être déterminé opposé affirmativement à la négation abstraite, est la Réalité dans un sens plus élevé que ne l'est cet infini qui auparavant était déterminé comme simple ; il a reçu ici un contenu concret. Ce n'est pas le fini qui est le réel, mais l'infini ; et ainsi la Réalité est en outre déterminée en tant qu'Essence, Concept, Idée, et ainsi de suite. Il est cependant superflu de répéter ces catégories antérieures et plus abstraites, comme la « Réalité », lorsque la plus concrète est atteinte, et de les employer à des déterminations plus concrètes qu'elles ne le sont en elles-mêmes. Une répétition, comme on en fait quand on dit que l'Essence ou l'Idée est le Réel, a sa raison en ce que, pour la pensée inculte, les catégories les plus abstraites, comme l'Être, l'Être déterminé, la Réalité et la Finitude, sont les plus familiers.</p> <p>Je vous laisse y penser, et je me dépêche de passer au dernier passage :</p> <p>« Il y a ici une raison plus précise de rappeler la catégorie de réalité, car la négation à laquelle elle se tient dans le rapport d'affirmatif est ici la négation de la négation : elle s'oppose donc elle-même à cette réalité, qui est l'Être Déterminé fini. La négation est ainsi déterminée comme idéalité ; ce qui participe de la nature idéale, c'est le fini tel qu'il se trouve dans l'infini véritable, en tant que détermination ou contenu qui, bien que distinct, n'existe pas indépendamment, mais seulement en tant que moment. L'idéalité a ce sens plus concret, qui ne s'exprime pas pleinement par la négation de l'Être Déterminé fini. »</p> <p>Oui. Le réel n'est qu'un moment, quoique fixe, limité, fini, dans l'Idéal. Ne l'ignorez pas. C'est « distinct ». Mais il n'a pas d'existence indépendante. L'identité a maintenant un sens plus concret, et il ne suffit pas de dire que l'Infini, l'au-delà niera le fini : le socialisme supprimera tout cela en général. Non monsieur. Cela signifie seulement que vous n'avez pas supprimé tout cela et que vous ne pouvez pas voir les forces qui le suppriment. Mais il y a des gens qui ne comprennent pas cela. Hegel poursuit :</p> <p>« Mais par rapport à la réalité et à l'idéalité, l'opposition au fini et à l'infini est prise de cette manière, que le fini est pris pour réel et l'infini comme nature idéale ; et telle, en effet, et telle seulement, le concept est plus tard prise pour être ; tandis que l'Etre Déterminé en général est pris comme réel. »</p> <p>Vous pouvez essayer de changer la formulation pour les aider. Vous ne pouvez pas. Ils « restent fixés dans l'Être Déterminé affirmatif du fini. "</p> <p>C'est le but de la Logique, pour la millième fois : comment rester en dehors des catégories figées, limitées, finies. C'est exactement ce que fait Hegel, de manière toujours plus concrète, page après page. C'est tout. Mais quel tout ! Pour sortir de l'emprise des catégories figées. Ce n'est pas facile. Précisément parce que nous devons les fixer et les préciser avant de pouvoir faire quoi que ce soit. On peut y rester fixé quand ils sont happés par des gens qui se contentent objectivement d'y rester.</p> <p>Pire encore, nous pouvons rester figés en eux lorsqu'ils n'existent plus. Le résultat est une frustration totale et un aveuglement face à la réalité. Dans ces catégories, le trotskisme fonctionne. Le stalinisme, cependant, a trouvé la base objective de ces catégories en tant que formes fixes et statiques, finies et limitées. (Je cherchais ça depuis des semaines et je l'ai). Le stalinisme a trouvé la base objective des catégories fixes du léninisme. Il fonctionne donc sur une base matérielle. Les jeux qu'il jouait avec Trotsky sur le socialisme dans un seul pays étaient la concrétisation, la stabilisation de son idéologie. Pour le stalinisme, c'était une véritable idéologie. Pour Trotsky, c'était essentiellement une fiction sans aucune réalité.</p> <p>Maintenant, nous pouvons aller de l'avant et sélectionner quelques phrases qui contiennent le noyau de l'idéalité de Hegel.</p> <p>La proposition selon laquelle le fini est de nature idéale constitue l'idéalisme.</p> <p>Vous voyez ici le lien étroit entre l'idéal et le réel. Le réel crée sans cesse un idéal qui demain devient réel et ainsi de suite.</p> <p>Hegel maudit ceux dont l'idéal est dans leur tête et leur caprice. Comme il les déteste.</p> <p>Par ce qui est « de nature idéale », on entend principalement la forme de l'imagination ; et ce nom est donné à tout ce qui est dans mon imagination en général, ou dans le concept, dans l'idée, dans la fantaisie, et ainsi de suite ; de sorte qu'il en vient à être compté comme équivalent seulement à des fantaisies - des imaginations qui sont non seulement distinctes du réel, mais sont supposées dans leur essence ne pas être réelles.</p> <p>Hegel n'en a pas l'utilité. L'idée pour lui est si intimement liée au réel qu'on ne peut pas les séparer. Un véritable idéal d'aujourd'hui est le réel de demain. Et c'est ainsi que la vie, et la logique, évoluent.</p> <p>Revenons donc à la note modeste mais prégnante de Lénine sur Hegel. La transformation de l'idéal en réel est profonde, très importante pour l'histoire. Vous vous souvenez dans le Matérialisme dialectique et le destin de l'humanité, j'ai cité un passage d'un vieil article de la Nouvelle Internationale montrant comment l'idéal est devenu réel, etc., en raison des buts et des consolidations et des compromis objectifs des classes et des sections de classes. Mais cette chose même deviendra avec le temps pour nous la base d'une enquête théorique attendue depuis longtemps, puis d'une politique pratique concrète. Nous avons maintenant (a) passé en revue le passé, (b) vu l'interconnexion et l'unité sous-jacente des parties de la Logique. Nous avons également promis (c) d'éclairer les dernières parties d'Essence à venir – le reste devra attendre. Passons maintenant aux dernières parties de la Doctrine de l'Essence. (Après de terribles heures de travail, je me sens plutôt bien. Je pense que nous avons un endroit et que nous sommes en route vers de meilleurs endroits).</p> <h2 class="spip">Apparence et actualité</h2> <p>Maintenant, après avoir sauté par-dessus Terre et pris des vacances avec Lénine, nous nous retrouvons dans Apparence. Je veux prendre Apparence pour une raison particulière.</p> <p>L'un de nos travaux les plus importants est l'exposition de l'analyse des partis staliniens comme « outils du Kremlin ». On dit qu'il est vrai que ce sont des « outils du Kremlin ». Mais cela, disons-nous, n'est que l'apparence des choses. Nous disons qu'ils sont essentiellement un produit du travail et du capital à ce stade, comme le menchévisme était un produit du travail et du capital à ce stade. Nous le fermons en disant : s'il n'y avait pas eu de révolution russe, pas de Kremlin, mais que le capitalisme avait continué à dégénérer sans être renversé par le socialisme, alors serait apparu un parti tel que le stalinisme, prêchant la révolution, prêt à se rallier au-delà des frontières nationales. avec d'autres travailleurs, répudiant la propriété privée et la défense nationale, mais craignant mortellement les travailleurs et se précipitant pour la protection et le refuge vers un impérialisme plus large, bureaucratique, corrompu, monolithique, reflétant le capitalisme dans son stade de capitalisme d'État. Nos adversaires continuent avec ces « outils du Kremlin ». C'est dégoûtant. Pourtant, assez curieusement, ils n'appellent pas les mencheviks actuels « outils de Washington ». Ils ont Lénine pour eux et ils essaient au moins de les relier au travail et au capital – à tort, mais au moins ils essaient.</p> <p>L'importance de notre analyse est évidente. Cela nous permet de caractériser le stalinisme comme une étape de transition – nous ne sommes pas dans la position ridicule d'expliquer pourquoi ces « outils du Kremlin » s'accrochent sans raison au Kremlin. Nous rejetons la responsabilité sur le capitalisme. Nous les peignons objectivement et non subjectivement.</p> <p>Tellement en général. En particulier, nous nous débarrassons de la gueule de bois russe. Le « socialisme dans un seul pays » est originaire de Russie et n'a jamais suscité le moindre intérêt pour le prolétariat mondial – jamais. Je me souviens du temps où nous nous nourrissions de l'illusion – je l'ai dit souvent – que lorsque les ouvriers comprendraient enfin que les partis communistes n'étaient que des agents de la politique étrangère de Staline, ils se tourneraient vers nous. Tout le monde connaît cette vérité maintenant. Ils se tournent plus que jamais vers les staliniens. Toute la méthode de pensée était fausse. Le socialisme dans un seul pays n'a pas « produit » des partis communistes qui se sont tournés vers leur propre bourgeoisie. Que le socialisme ne puisse pas être construit était une abstraction aussi grande que la théorie de Trotsky de la révolution permanente. C'était une continuation de sa vieille lutte avec le bolchevisme, à cette époque corrompu sous Staline.Tout cela, la théorie de la révolution permanente, tout le débat sur le socialisme dans un seul pays, les masses se tourneraient vers nous quand elles auraient compris, etc., tout cela est la pensée subjective la plus pure sans contact objectif avec la réalité. « Outils du Kremlin » est l'Apparence, l'organisation du travail spécifique de l'époque du capitalisme d'État est l'Essence. C'est seulement en général. Armons-nous d'une logique dialectique.Armons-nous d'une logique dialectique.Armons-nous d'une logique dialectique.</p> <p>L'essence est un mouvement. Ce mouvement doit apparaître. Son apparition immédiate, Hegel l'appelle Existence. Quelque chose existe, mais il est transitoire, sans importance, simple Spectacle, jusqu'à ce qu'il persiste et devienne Apparence. L'apparence est l'existence devenue "essentielle".</p> <p>L'essence n'est donc pas quelque chose au-delà ou derrière l'apparence, mais simplement parce que c'est l'essence qui existe – l'existence est Apparence (brillant en avant).</p> <p>Mais il faut faire attention à l'apparence. Vous ne pouvez pas le rejeter - ce n'est qu'une simple apparence. Hegel dit :</p> <p>« L'apparence est à tous égards un grade très important de l'idée logique. On peut dire que la distinction de la philosophie par rapport à la conscience ordinaire est qu'elle voit le caractère simplement phénoménal de ce que cette dernière suppose avoir un être auto-subsistant. La signification de l'apparence, cependant, doit être correctement saisie, ou des erreurs surviendront. Dire que quelque chose est une simple apparence peut être mal interprété comme signifiant que, par rapport à ce qui est simplement phénoménal, il y a une plus grande vérité dans l'immédiat, dans ce qui est. Or, à proprement parler, le cas est précisément l'inverse. L'apparence est plus élevée que le simple être, catégorie plus riche parce qu'elle contient en combinaison les deux éléments de la réflexion sur soi et de la réflexion sur l'autre : alors que l'être (ou l'immédiateté) n'est encore qu'un simple sans relation, et ne repose apparemment que sur lui-même. Toujours,dire que quelque chose n'est qu'apparence suggère un vrai défaut, qui consiste en ceci, que l'Apparence est encore divisée contre elle-même et sans stabilité intrinsèque. Au-delà et au-dessus de la simple apparence vient en premier lieu l'Actualité, le troisième degré d'Essence, dont nous parlerons plus tard.</p> <p>Dans l'histoire de la philosophie moderne, Kant a le mérite de réhabiliter d'abord cette distinction entre le mode de pensée commun et le mode de pensée philosophique. Il s'arrêta cependant à mi-chemin, lorsqu'il attacha à l'Apparence un sens subjectif seulement, et plaça l'essence abstraite immobile en dehors d'elle comme la chose en soi hors de portée de notre connaissance. Car c'est la nature même du monde des objets immédiats de n'être qu'apparence. Sachant qu'il en est ainsi, nous connaissons en même temps l'essence qui, loin de rester en arrière ou au-delà de l'apparence, manifeste plutôt sa propre essentialité en déposant le monde à une simple apparence. On ne peut guère se quereller avec l'homme simple qui, dans son désir de totalité, ne peut acquiescer à la doctrine de l'idéalisme subjectif, selon lequel nous ne nous occupons que des phénomènes. »</p> <p>Un bon passage. Ça vaut le coup de travailler dessus. Mais son importance pour nous est à la fois théorique et pratique. Théorique parce que nous venons de dire assez longuement que le réel n'est qu'un moment de l'idéal. Bon. Mais c'était en général. Maintenant Hegel dit que le monde entier est Apparence mais que l'Apparence est une manifestation de l'Essence. Et lorsqu'il nous a prévenus que le réel était bien « distinct », il nous prévient désormais que l'apparence n'est pas une « simple » apparence. Si c'était le cas, ce serait un spectacle (l'un des types de spectacle bon marché, pour Hegel, foutez-le, a beaucoup de "spectacles"). L'avertissement signifie : vous devez relier l'apparence à l'Essence.</p> <p>Un avertissement salutaire ! « Outils du Kremlin » est la seule façon dont Essence pourrait apparaître dans le monde contemporain. Ce n'était pas cette apparition par hasard. C'est la valeur la plus vraie de Hegel. Il vous fait lutter avec les problèmes, les approfondir, voir des relations plus profondes et plus compliquées (qui tendent cependant à une plus grande simplicité), et vous aide à réexaminer l'objet. Une vraie apparence est celle qui doit être ainsi. Douteux ? Voyons.</p> <p>Si une bureaucratie est convaincue que le capitalisme tel qu'elle l'a connu est désespéré et impuissant, si elle ressent la pression des masses révolutionnaires, si elle vit dans la terreur mortelle du bouleversement des masses qui lui semble signifier le chaos et la destruction de la civilisation, puis avec sa propre bourgeoisie n'offrant aucune perspective, elle doit se tourner vers une autre. Elle doit se tourner vers le prolétariat révolutionnaire ou vers la bourgeoisie. En cas de crise fondamentale, il n'y a pas d'autre endroit où aller. Il se tourne donc vers l'impérialisme majeur inverse. Il crée une version idéalisée de son patron, il s'attache à ce qu'il pense faire comprendre à ses adeptes la nécessité de le soutenir. Il devient son avocat, il adopte son idéologie ; pour sa propre défense, il devient défenseur de son patron.</p> <p>La preuve en est donnée par l'observation de ceux qui s'opposent au régime russe. Le stalinisme n'a qu'une phrase pour eux : « les outils de l'impérialisme américain ». Dans tous les pays satellites et en Russie sans doute l'opposition qui n'arrive pas à se tourner vers les masses révolutionnaires mais trouve le régime russe intolérable a fondamentalement la même attitude envers la « démocratie » et la « puissance industrielle » américaines que l'opposition, les staliniens en le monde occidental, ont à « l'économie planifiée » russe. Sans le régime totalitaire impitoyable, nous trouverions vraisemblablement la direction de l'opposition en Russie et certainement dans les pays satellites, telle qu'elle soit, aussi hardie, aussi fanatique, pour la « démocratie » que les staliniens le sont pour « économie".</p> <p>« L'économie planifiée » semble être quelque chose de nouveau et est plus en harmonie avec le stade actuel du capitalisme, mais l'opposition est aussi fanatique que le sont les staliniens, et compte tenu du temps, de l'argent américain et de la liberté que les staliniens ont dans le démocraties, les dirigeants créeraient une idéologie et une pratique qui permettraient à leurs ennemis de les appeler « outils de la Maison Blanche » de la même manière que les staliniens sont appelés « outils du Kremlin ». Ils pourraient très bien le faire sans prôner le retour à la propriété privée de l'industrie lourde. C'est précisément pour cette raison que Staline n'autorise rien, pas même un coup d'œil d'un journal étranger. L'opposition au régime qui n'est pas révolutionnaire doit rechercher l'idéologie de l'impérialisme adverse. C'est le mouvement logique. C'est pourtant, comme l'est toujours un mouvement logique,modifié par toutes sortes de circonstances. Un vieux pays historiquement puissant comme la Grande-Bretagne, avec ses propres traditions profondément enracinées et une classe ouvrière puissante et unie, ne peut pas prêcher « l'américanisme » comme les staliniens prêchent le stalinisme. La bureaucratie ouvrière, cependant, agit au service de l'impérialisme américain dans toutes les questions importantes. De Gaulle, ce puissant trompettiste du nationalisme français, est désormais devenu un véritable admirateur américain. Mais dans des pays plus faibles comme la Roumanie, la Hongrie, etc., l'opposition au stalinisme est sans cette combinaison. Les socialistes sont pour la « démocratie américaine », et combinent cela avec des propositions de nationalisation.ne peut pas prêcher « l'américanisme » comme les staliniens prêchent le stalinisme. La bureaucratie ouvrière, cependant, agit au service de l'impérialisme américain dans toutes les questions importantes. De Gaulle, ce puissant trompettiste du nationalisme français, est désormais devenu un véritable admirateur américain. Mais dans des pays plus faibles comme la Roumanie, la Hongrie, etc., l'opposition au stalinisme est sans cette combinaison. Les socialistes sont pour la « démocratie américaine », et combinent cela avec des propositions de nationalisations ne peut pas prêcher « l'américanisme » comme les staliniens prêchent le stalinisme. La bureaucratie ouvrière, cependant, agit au service de l'impérialisme américain dans toutes les questions importantes. De Gaulle, ce puissant trompettiste du nationalisme français, est désormais devenu un véritable admirateur américain. Mais dans des pays plus faibles comme la Roumanie, la Hongrie, etc., l'opposition au stalinisme est sans cette combinaison. Les socialistes sont pour la « démocratie américaine », et combinent cela avec des propositions de nationalisation.et combiner cela avec des propositions de nationalisation .et combiner cela avec des propositions de nationalisations.</p> <p>Cette apparence n'est donc pas une simple apparence. C'est le seul moyen par lequel, dans le présent complexe de conditions, l'Essence peut briller. Et Hegel veut dire précisément cela. Sinon, l'apparence n'est pas l'apparence. C'est le spectacle ou l'Existence ou quelque chose de foutu. Mais quand sa qualité grandit et grandit jusqu'à ce qu'elle s'installe dans l'apparence, alors vous avez quelque chose. Et alors que vous apprenez à lire la plus grande Logique et ses pages sur des pages de jargon apparemment abscons et mystifiant, vous le trouverez vous forçant à voir le mouvement, le modèle, la connexion, l'ordre, l'inévitabilité là où auparavant vous ne voyiez rien ou un simple hasard.</p> <p>Les implications de tout cela sont énormes pour la pensée en relation avec le monde moderne. L'idée que la révolution russe a attiré tant de monde s'estompe dans la subjectivité qu'elle est. Cette relation d'Apparence et d'Essence nous apprend à voir que c'est le désespoir du capitalisme et le désespoir de la révolution qui ont poussé les anticapitalistes vers la bureaucratie moscovite. Ils ont trouvé une base et une fonction objectives et ont combattu leurs ennemis. C'est pourquoi la défaite en Allemagne en 1933 et la dégradation concomitante des masses ont renforcé l'impérialisme américain. Chaque groupe se targuait de sa propre « nationalisation » ou « démocratie », certains combinant les deux, mais sachant où l'accent était mis. C'étaient les pièges tendus aux masses. Les arguments de Trotsky sur le socialisme dans un seul pays n'ont pas seulement conduit à de fausses conclusions.Cela l'a coupé de toute possibilité sérieuse d'examiner ce qui se passait en Europe occidentale.</p> <p>Il est impossible de rester ici maintenant et d'examiner toutes les implications. Continuons avec Hegel. Il dit qu'après l'Apparition, l'étape suivante est l'Actualité, et il nous dit ce qu'est l'Actualité. Lorsque l'Apparence n'est plus l'expression de l'Essence mais assume une existence indépendante qui lui est propre, et que l'Essence sort aussi en son propre nom et droit, alors nous avons l'Actualité. Les voiles sont arrachés, deux totalités se font face. Hegel écrit : Il n'y a pas de transition.</p> <p>En réalité, cette unité est explicitement posée, et les deux côtés de la relation identifiés. Ainsi l'actuel est exempt de transition, et son extériorité est son énergisant. Dans cet énergisant, il se réfléchit en lui-même : son existence n'est que la manifestation d'elle-même, pas d'une autre.</p> <p>Il n'y a maintenant aucune transition interne, aucune réflexion. Les forces fondamentales sont en conflit au grand jour. Dans l'Actualité, l'essence, le mouvement vers la réalisation, est vu clairement. L'apparence qui était, la façon dont l'Essence avait l'habitude de briller, est maintenant quelque chose à part entière. Dans l'organisme que nous avons suivi, le prolétariat, l'Actualité est aussi simple que le jour pour un dialecticien. Le mouvement du prolétariat, sa recherche de la réalisation de ses potentialités est clair, même Shachtman peut le voir. Mais les bureaucraties, les organisations, les partis, ceux-là n'expriment plus le mouvement. Ils ont maintenant acquis une existence propre et indépendante au sein de la totalité. Le conflit est à son paroxysme. Il n'y a pas de transition. Il faut maintenant la réorganisation totale en quelque chose de nouveau. Comme Marcuse le remarque dans Reason and Revolution,la catégorie d'Actualité signifie lutte sans merci.</p> <p>Je dois vous laisser le soin d'étudier avec Hegel comment une étape comme l'Actualité s'exprime dans la Substance, puis dans la Causalité où, contrairement à l'Entendement qui voit perpétuellement cause ici et effet là, Hegel ne voit la cause comme mesurable que par l'effet. Cette cause est cet effet. Mais cet effet est une autre cause. L'effet est incité à l'action par la cause. Mais la cause aussi est incitée par l'effet. Vous ne pouvez pas les séparer. Les unités adverses sont trop coincées. De la causalité, le pas est facile à l'action et à la réaction, ce que Hegel appelle la Réciprocité. C'est une étape plus intensive de cause à effet. De la réciprocité Engels écrit : « Ce que Hegel appelle l'action réciproque est le corps organique, qui forme donc le passage à la conscience, c'est-à-dire de la nécessité à la liberté, à l'idée : voir Logique II, Conclusion.</p> <p>Et sous le stress de cette violente pression de va-et-vient, car ni l'un ni l'autre ne peut céder, l'organisme déborde dans le concept. Il se sait pour ce qu'il est. Cette étape n'est pas loin pour le prolétariat.</p> <p>Pendant que vous travaillez sur la Substance, la Possibilité, la Nécessité, la Contingence, etc., ne vous handicapez pas en essayant d'insérer chaque paragraphe dans une phase du développement du prolétariat vers le socialisme. Ce n'est pas nécessaire. Hegel a examiné tout le matériel disponible de son époque, dans toutes les sphères majeures de la nature et de la société pour faire abstraction de ce modèle essentiel. Ce qu'il faut faire, c'est noter ce qu'il dit de l'Actualité et de l'Idée. Il veut que vous les gardiez aussi proches que vous avez gardé l'apparence et l'essence. Il met en garde contre toute grande séparation entre l'Actualité et l'Idée. Ils sont fermés. Nous devrions nous en souvenir aujourd'hui. Son commentaire est facile, familier, très différent de celui de la Logique plus large. Il dit pourtant ce qu'il veut dire.Remarquez comment l'Idée épouse l'Actualité – l'idéal et le réel (vous vous souvenez de notre intermède avec Lénine ?) dans les généralités abstraites de l'Être sont maintenant devenus plus concentrés dans la sphère plus développée de l'Essence.</p> <p>Réalité et pensée (ou Idée) sont souvent absurdement opposées. Comme nous entendons couramment des gens dire que, bien qu'aucune objection ne puisse être soulevée contre la vérité et l'exactitude d'une certaine pensée, il n'y a rien de la sorte à voir dans la réalité, ou cela ne peut pas être réellement réalisé ! Les gens qui utilisent un tel langage prouvent seulement qu'ils n'ont pas correctement saisi la nature ni de la pensée ni de la réalité. La pensée dans un tel cas est, d'une part, synonyme d'une conception subjective, d'un plan, d'une intention ou similaire, tout comme l'actualité, d'autre part, est synonyme d'existence externe et sensible. C'est très bien dans la vie courante, où un grand laxisme est permis dans les catégories et les noms qui leur sont donnés : et il peut bien sûr arriver que, par exemple, le plan, ou la soi-disant idée, dise d'un certain mode d'imposition,est bonne et conseillée dans l'abstrait, mais que rien de tel ne se trouve dans la soi-disant réalité, ou ne pourrait éventuellement être réalisé dans les conditions données.</p> <p>Mais quand la compréhension abstraite s'empare de ces catégories et exagère la distinction qu'elles impliquent en une ligne de contraste dure et rapide, quand elle nous dit que dans ce monde réel nous devons nous arracher les idées, il faut énergiquement protester contre ces doctrines, aussi bien au nom de la science que de la saine raison. Car d'une part les Idées ne sont pas confinées à nos têtes simplement, et l'Idée, dans l'ensemble, n'est pas assez faible pour laisser la question de son actualisation ou de sa non-actualisation dépendante de notre volonté. L'Idée est plutôt l'absolument actif aussi bien que l'actuel. Et d'un autre côté, la réalité n'est pas si mauvaise et irrationnelle que l'imaginent des aspirants réformateurs aveugles ou mal avisés et embrouillés. Jusqu'à présent, la réalité, distincte de la simple apparence, et présentant principalement une unité de l'intérieur et de l'extérieur,d'être en contradiction avec la raison, qu'elle est plutôt tout à fait raisonnable, et tout ce qui n'est pas raisonnable doit pour cette raison même cesser d'être tenu pour actuel. Le même point de vue se retrouve dans les usages de la parole instruite, qui refuse de donner le nom de vrai poète ou de vrai homme d'État à un poète ou à un homme d'État qui ne peut rien faire de vraiment méritoire ou raisonnable.</p> <p>Entre nous, il est très méritoire et raisonnable quand Hegel discute de ces choses de cette façon. Les traducteurs de la plus grande Logique disent que parfois dans ce travail, il semblait être obscur et mystérieux dans sa langue pour de la pure diablerie. Mais ici, il est calme et facile.</p> <p>C'est pour nous la fin de l'Essence. Nous l'avons vu grandir à partir de Show, nous avons creusé dans son Base (nous n'avons pas creusé trop profondément), nous sommes passés à Apparence. Nous avons vu dans Actualité les différents éléments sortir au grand jour. Désormais, aucun compromis n'est possible. Guerre jusqu'au bout. Une autre fois, vous verrez les investigations philosophiques et la méthode que Hegel a utilisées pour obtenir cela. Vous aborderez peut-être le problème fascinant de la façon dont ce développement philosophique a eu lieu, et comment il se compare à un homme intelligent examinant sans philosophie un objet et apprenant de plus en plus d'expérience. Vous verrez plus tard comment des individus doués, exprimant leurs propres idiosyncrasies psychosomatiques, se sont révélés incapables d'aller au-delà d'un certain stade de la pensée, et comment des classes ou des sections de classes en ont fait leurs porte-parole. Tout cela est pour l'avenir. Mais maintenant nous avons, conformément à notre pratique, pour utiliser l'Essence, nous élevons d'un niveau, juste un niveau de plus. Je propose de faire deux choses : (1) examiner le travail de Lénine, car jusqu'à ce que nous l'ayons parcouru et que nous l'ayons fait nôtre, nous ne pouvons pas continuer ; (2) après avoir fait ce pas en avant un peu, en général, par nous-mêmes, en restant bien dans l'Essence. Quand vous lisez Cause et Effet dans l'Essence, un stade très élevé de l'Essence, vous vous souviendrez que dans la Logique Hegel avait également exposé la Cause et l'Effet, en général, étape par étape, étape par étape. Que j'ai appris.Quand vous lisez Cause et Effet dans l'Essence, un stade très élevé de l'Essence, vous vous souviendrez que dans la Logique Hegel avait également exposé la Cause et l'Effet, en général, étape par étape, étape par étape. Que j'ai appris.Quand vous lisez Cause et Effet dans l'Essence, un stade très élevé de l'Essence, vous vous souviendrez que dans la Logique Hegel avait également exposé la Cause et l'Effet, en général, étape par étape, étape par étape. Que j'ai appris.</p> <h2 class="spip">La doctrine du concept</h2> <p>La Doctrine du Concept est la Logique Subjective, la logique de l'Esprit, de la pensée elle-même. Dans la Doctrine de l'Être, nous traitions de la pensée telle qu'elle observait et ressentait l'influence d'objets simples et déterminés. Dans Essence, nous avons examiné un processus plus complexe, les objets étaient « reflétés » par la pensée dans des déterminations de pensée représentant des parties de l'objet ; passage d'une étape à l'autre. Passons maintenant au Concept. L'objet n'est plus l'être pur et simple. Elle n'est plus divisée en déterminations-pensées. C'est un tout une fois de plus, mais un tout enrichi par nos précédents combats avec lui. Et l'objet étant maintenant un tout, examiné à fond, l'examen passe non pas à la logique de la pensée par rapport à l'objet, mais à la logique de la pensée elle-même, du concept, en tant que concept.</p> <p>Et de même le concept peut, si l'on veut, être qualifié d'abstrait, si le nom concret se restreint aux faits concrets de sens ou de perception immédiate. Car le concept n'est pas palpable au toucher, et lorsque nous y sommes engagés, l'ouïe et la vue doivent tout à fait nous faire défaut.</p> <p>Mais Hegel insiste, le concept est concret, un « vrai concret » pour la pensée.</p> <p>Les doctrines précédentes avaient un triple mouvement. Ainsi la Doctrine de l'Être évoluait entre Qualité, Quantité et Mesure. La Doctrine de l'Essence se déplace entre Identité, Différence et Opposition (qui repasse dans le Fond) ; il y a une relation entre Qualité et Identité ; entre la quantité et la différence ; entre Mesure et Opposition (ou Terrain).</p> <p>Dans la Doctrine de l'Être, le mouvement dialectique se bornait à passer à autre chose. Dans la Doctrine de l'Essence, le mouvement dialectique se borne à passer à quelque chose qui appartenait à la chose même que nous examinions – « l'autre chose » est le quelque chose lui-même ; mais son Autre, nous l'avons déterré. Tout cela est lié entre eux, opposition, étapes supérieures, etc. Je n'en ferai rien. Ceci n'est pas un résumé de l'exposition de la Logique. C'est une introduction à la Logique, une illustration de la façon dont nous devrions l'utiliser et une démonstration de sa validité.</p> <p>Mais nous devons être prêts maintenant à chercher un triple mouvement dans le concept. Elle est là, et ces divisions sont très anciennes dans les examens de pensée. Ils sont Universels, Particuliers et Individuels. Puis Hegel va passer de longues pages sur le Jugement, sur le syllogisme : Tous les hommes sont mortels, Gaius est un homme, donc Gaius est mortel. Il les poursuit sous toutes leurs formes et formes différentes, mais elles ne sont pas abstraites, formelles, finies, fixes, limitées. Il montre comment ils se sont développés les uns par rapport aux autres, par contradiction, etc., en utilisant toutes les lois qu'il a élaborées dans la logique objective. Prenez le Jugement. Quand vous dites, « une maison est bonne, selon son caractère », vous portez une sorte de jugement ; quand vous dites « la maison, si de tel ou tel personnage, est bonne », vous avez développé ce jugement et ainsi de suite. Il a quatre classes principales de Jugement,le Jugement d'Inhérence, le Jugement de Subsomption, le Jugement de Nécessité, le Jugement du concept ; mais le Jugement d'Inhérence, par exemple, se divise en Jugement Positif, Jugement Négatif, Jugement Infini ; et chacun des autres a ses trois divisions. Je n'ai pas travaillé sur les Jugements, mais je sais que le Jugement d'Inhérence correspond à la Qualité dans la Doctrine de l'Etre et à l'Identité dans la Doctrine de l'Essence ; que le Jugement de Subsomption et de Nécessité correspondent à la Quantité dans la Doctrine de l'Etre et à la Différence dans la Doctrine de l'Essence. La même chose avec le syllogisme et ainsi de suite. Hegel dit, dans les livres de logique ordinaires qu'ils vous disent, voici ces formes : appliquez-les ou apprenez-les ou faites quelque chose avec elles. Il dit : ils ne sont pas seulement tombés du ciel, ils sont venus chacun de quelque part,à un certain stade de développement ; ils sont passés à des formes plus élevées et plus compliquées, ils sont passés à ces formes supérieures par un certain processus. Dans Dialectique de la nature, Engels a ce qui est à mon humble avis un passage très satisfaisant sur le Jugement.</p> <p>Maintenant, si vous avez prêté attention, vous saurez maintenant de quoi parle la Doctrine du concept ; il traite de ce développement des normes de conscience en tant que telles. Vous vous souvenez de la Préface et de l'Introduction à la Phénoménologie, de la chose testée et de la chose testante. Le concept traite de la chose qui teste – l'appareil de la pensée. Et malgré tous les ravissements de Hegel sur le fait que nous sommes maintenant dans la sphère bleue de l'Esprit-Monde, etc., dans la Logique Subjective, il trace un développement aussi logiquement objectif qu'on peut le souhaiter. Mais il est bon de se rappeler que nous sommes dans le domaine de la pensée. Son caractère destructeur est le développement, par lequel Hegel veut dire qu'il ne montre que ce qui est immanent en lui, par exemple, la plante se développe à partir de son germe. Rien n'apparaît dans la plante qui ne soit contenu dans le germe. Des jumeaux identiques le montrent très clairement.A cinquante ans, ils se ressemblent souvent exactement, ce qui veut dire que leur germe contenait tout ce qu'ils sont devenus par la suite. Hegel dit qu'alors que dans la Doctrine de l'Être la chose se change en autre chose, mais autre chose qui bien qu'« autre » en fasse vraiment partie, elle reflète un autre intérieur ; dans la Dialectique du concept, la petite chose, le commencement abstrait, s'étend constamment et se développe en étapes de plus en plus larges, plus concrètes, plus riches, plus compliquées, plus globales, qui étaient en elle depuis le tout début. Pensée, tu te souviens ? Pensée. Des idées en tant qu'idées.il reflète un autre intérieur ; dans la Dialectique du concept, la petite chose, le commencement abstrait, s'étend constamment et se développe en étapes de plus en plus larges, plus concrètes, plus riches, plus compliquées, plus globales, qui étaient en elle depuis le tout début. Pensée, tu te souviens ? Pensée. Des idées en tant qu'idées.il reflète un autre intérieur ; dans la Dialectique du concept, la petite chose, le commencement abstrait, s'étend constamment et se développe en étapes de plus en plus larges, plus concrètes, plus riches, plus compliquées, plus globales, qui étaient en elle depuis le tout début. Pensée, tu te souviens ? Pensée. Des idées en tant qu'idées.</p> <p>Avec cette contradiction très modeste, nous pouvons maintenant commencer. J'interpréterai librement et puis collerai le passage vers le bas. Nulle part, pas même chez Marx, je n'ai été aussi enthousiasmé par le pur pouvoir de divination logique et d'interprétation de l'intellect humain. Si vous voulez l'essayer vous-même, le passage est en p. 242 de la plus grande Logique où il reprend le Particulier ; il a déjà traité avec Universel. Nous n'avons pas à traiter spécialement avec Universel. Nous le connaissons bien. L'État est un universel – il englobe tous les types de gouvernement politique. C'est tout à fait concret. C'est tout à fait abstrait. Tel autre est « la révolution ». Un autre universel est le socialisme. Cela signifie tout. Pourtant, cela ne signifie rien de particulier.</p> <p>Le socialisme est donc un Universel (en pensée, remarquez, un concept). C'est comme un germe, il contient beaucoup de choses dedans. Ce germe prend une forme déterminée, une forme particulière. C'est son être, comme par exemple dans Le Manifeste Communiste ou dans le Manifeste de la Première Internationale. Le concept comme Universelle devient une concept déterminée. Mais dans la Doctrine de l'Être quand rien ne devenait quelque chose, c'était un simple « immédiat ». Ce n'est pas le cas dans le concept. Lorsque l'Universel du socialisme devient déterminé, il ne s'agit pas d'une simple immédiateté. Il est « égal à lui-même ». C'est une forme de médiation qui est absolue. (Il faut le ressentir.) Il n'est pas là qu'à attendre d'être transformé en un Autre. Il est vrai qu'il contient Intro-Reflection ou Essence. Il ne va pas y rester éternellement. Ça va changer, ça va bouger. Mais pour donner quelques exemples approximatifs : quand Marx a écrit ses concepts et les a définis, il ne l'a pas fait en cherchant à y voir des contradictions, à partir desquelles il trouverait une vérité supérieure. Non, c'était du socialisme déterminé. Le léninisme en tant que concept et doctrine était le socialisme concret. Vous le voyez dans la distinction entre la révolution bourgeoise et la révolution prolétarienne (exemples seulement). La révolution bourgeoise en Russie telle que Lénine la concevait, visait à faire quelque chose qui créerait, libérerait la possibilité pour le prolétariat de s'organiser librement (comme en Europe) et de lutter pour le socialisme. C'était une transition. Mais la révolution prolétarienne est la révolution prolétarienne. Ce n'est pas fondamentalement une transition vers quoi que ce soit d'autre. Il est vrai qu'il a à un moment donné des faiblesses, des défauts ; ceux-ci seront supprimés. Mais il se pose à part entière. C'est une médiation, elle ne comprend pas l'Universel dans sa totalité, mais c'est une médiation absolue. C'est le concept en « principe », mot que Hegel utilise souvent dans cette section, et il dit que toute Concept dont la forme particulière n'est pas le concept en principe n'est pas bonne. C'est « stérile ». Vient maintenant un brillant usage de la dialectique, qui donnera des résultats étonnants. Le socialisme est un Universel qui, en 1864, prend une forme déterminée et concrète. Mais, dit Hegel, elle est « revêtue » de l'Universel. La forme déterminée, ce qu'écrit Marx, a des faiblesses, des défauts, des « différences » avec l'Universel. Lui et tous ceux qui ont du bon sens le savent. Les doctrines sont concrètes mais elles ne sont pas du socialisme complet. Mais ils sont écrits en termes d'Universel : ceci, cela et cela, c'est le socialisme. Donc les doctrines de 1864 deviennent contenu et l'Universel devient forme,et donc abstrait. Dans l'Universel pur, ce n'est que la négativité absolue, le socialisme dont nous savons qu'il devra nier et nier jusqu'à ce qu'il le trouve réalisation totale. Mais lorsqu'elle trouve en principe un contenu déterminé, ce contenu est déterminé, ce qui rend l'Universel en lui abstrait.</p> <p>Voici le paragraphe complet :</p> <p>« La déterminité du particulier est simple comme principe (on l'a vu) ; mais c'est simple aussi comme moment de totalité – comme déterminité contre l'autre déterminité. Le concept, en tant qu'elle se détermine ou se distingue, désigne négativement son unité et prend la forme d'un de ses moments (qui est de nature idéale) d'être : comme Concept déterminée elle a un Être Déterminé en général. Mais cet Être ne signifie plus l'immédiateté nue mais l'Universelité – immédiateté qui par médiation absolue est égale à elle-même et contient également l'autre moment, Essence ou Intro-Réflexion. Cette Universelité qui revêt le déterminé est l'Universelité abstraite. Le particulier contient l'Universelité comme Essence ; mais, en tant que la déterminité de la différence est posée, et a par là l'être,cette Universelité est liée à la différence comme forme, et la déterminité comme telle est contenu. L'universelité devient forme en tant que la différence existe comme l'essentiel - tandis que dans l'universel pur elle n'existe que comme négativité absolue, et non comme différence qui se pose comme telle. »</p> <p>Maintenant pour continuer. La première phrase que je n'arrive pas à comprendre – accordez-moi quelques instants – mais après ça va bon train. (Pourquoi toute cette effervescence ? Car juste au-dessus de la page, la Compréhension s'emballe, s'expose, d'une manière qui fait du bien au cœur.) Dans le concept déterminée, le concept est hors d'elle-même. C'est le socialisme, la négativité pure. Mais c'est déterminé. Les doctrines, les idées de Marx sont suffisamment concrètes. Ils apparaîtront dans la Commune dans quelques années. Et bien qu'il y ait des différences entre le socialisme, en tant qu'universel pur, et le socialisme dans sa forme déterminée, il n'y a pourtant pas d'autre socialisme et l'identité est assez proche. Mais l'identité est simplement « immédiate ». Ce n'est pas la totalité, en 1864, pas l'idée pleine, complète. (Aujourd'hui, nous sommes beaucoup plus proches de cela. Un monde, le socialisme international, etc.)</p> <p>En soi, c'est cette complétude puisque le germe est en soi la plante. Elle est pour soi, sous la forme déterminée, pour soi en principe. Mais s'il y a médiation, il va y avoir d'autres étapes, mais ces étapes ne sont pas « posées », l'essentiel n'est pas de développer ce qui est inhérent et appelé à apparaître. L'affaire principale est ce qui est. Mais précisément parce que nous avons affaire à quelque chose en principe, le contenu a la forme de l'indifférence à son Universelité. Ce n'est pas la totalité. D'ACCORD. Mais il n'est pas, comme dans la Doctrine de l'Essence, incapable de faire un pas sans regarder en arrière pour voir ce qu'il reflète, et impatient de voir ce qui va arriver. Bien sûr, nous allons arbitrer, mais cette chose ici et maintenant est assez bonne pour nous.</p> <p>Et maintenant, mes amis, nous approchons. Laissons le maestro parler pour lui-même maintenant et nous suivrons notre chemin. (Vous obtiendrez cependant quelques chocs.)</p> <p>C'est ici aussi le lieu de mentionner la circonstance qui a fait que l'entendement a été tenu en si peu d'estime ces derniers temps et qu'il a été rangé après la raison, à savoir la fixité qu'il donne aux déterminités, et donc aux finitudes. Cette fixité consiste dans la forme d'Universelité abstraite qui vient d'être considérée : par elle ils deviennent immuables.</p> <p>Le Trotskysme, voyant que la Deuxième Internationale (réformiste) et la Troisième Internationale (révolutionnaire) et la bureaucratie ennemie de la propriété privée étaient des incarnations « en principe » du socialisme, de l'Universel, qu'ils ont sans aucun doute complètement omis d'étudier p. 244 de la Logique et reconnaître que ceux-ci, aussi concrets qu'ils fussent, étaient pourtant des Universaux abstraits au sens où Hegel l'a si soigneusement expliqué. Ils n'étaient qu'une forme. Ils n'étaient pas la totalité. Et précisément parce qu'ils étaient l'Universelité abstraite, ils pouvaient devenir terriblement fixes et férocement finis. Le fait même qu'ils soient universels est ce qui leur donne leur ténacité et leur endurance. Dans l'Être simple et l'Essence réflexive, le mouvement est plus facile.</p> <p>Car la déterminité qualitative, et la détermination de la réflexion, existent essentiellement comme limitées, et, dans leur barrière, ont un rapport avec leur Autre ; ils contiennent ainsi la nécessité de la transition et de la disparition. Mais l'Universelité (qu'ils ont dans l'Entendement) leur donne la forme d'Intro-Réflexion, qui les soustrait au rapport à autrui et les rend impérissables.</p> <p>Socialisme ! Un socialisme mondial, une internationale révolutionnaire une internationale réformiste, mon Dieu ! Ce ne sont pas des exemples parfaits, mais ce ne sont pas des manifestations ordinaires. Ce sont des Universaux. Et ainsi la Compréhension s'en tient à eux. Ils étaient des universaux, mais des universaux limités. Comme le dit Hegel, l'entendement rend à ces choses un respect qui n'appartient qu'au concept « pur » et qu'à une déterminité elle-même universelle.</p> <p>Or, dans le concept pur, cette éternité appartient à sa propre nature, et ainsi ses déterminations abstraites ne seraient des essentialités éternelles que selon leur forme ; mais leur contenu n'est pas adéquat à cette forme, et par conséquent ils ne sont pas vérité et impérissabilité. Leur contenu n'est pas adéquat à la forme, parce qu'il n'est pas la déterminité elle-même comme universelle ; c'est-à-dire qu'elle n'est pas en tant que totalité de la différentiation du concept, ou pas elle-même la forme entière. . .</p> <p>Maintenant je ne sais pas, mais il me semble que Hegel, ayant examiné des phénomènes et des totalités de toutes sortes, a ici extrait le processus de la pensée de l'Entendement d'une manière qui nous fait voir nos problèmes sous un jour nouveau et infiniment plus riche. . Il y en a d'autres à venir qui vont nous surprendre et nous illuminer. Mais Hegel est un dialecticien. Il n'y a pas que la différence, il y a l'identité, il y a le lien. Voyez comment Hegel, qui travaillait l'Entendement, nous montre maintenant qu'il a une place indiscutable – oui, monsieur – indiscutable dans la dialectique :</p> <p>« L'entendement représente alors la force infinie qui détermine l'Universel, ou au contraire confère une persistance fixe par la forme de l'Universelité à ce qui dans la déterminité n'a en soi et pour soi aucune stabilité ; et ce n'est pas la faute de la compréhension s'il n'y a plus de progrès. »</p> <p>C'est assez clair. La compréhension alors même dans le Concept est le genre de pensée qui détermine l'Universel. C'est une qualité positive. Ça dit : les garçons, ça y est. Regardez comment cela incarne l'Universel. Voyez comment il représente le socialisme ici, là et là-bas. Voyez comment cette Internationale réformiste est le réformisme incarné. La compréhension en fait est véritablement révolutionnaire, et dans l'établissement d'un Universel déterminé, vous ne pouvez pas faire la différence entre elle et la Raison. La raison utilise en fait la compréhension à cette fin. (N'est-ce pas merveilleux ! L'arrière-pensée, les choses que je dis et ne dis pas.) Mais l'entendement est accablé par ces magnifiques déterminations de principe. Il veut s'installer maintenant et se mettre au travail. Quand Universel commence à vouloir sortir de ce Particulier, la Compréhension fait rage furieusement. Celui-ci, mes amis, dit-il, est Universel. Il a des défauts, mais il est Universel. Enfin, quand l'Entendement peut y rester, il ne bouge plus, mais pour quoi faire ? Il dit : « Mes amis, nous n'avons aucune réflexion ennuyeuse à faire. Les plans sont là. Le grand architecte de nos Universaux malheureusement dégénérés, il nous a laissé les plans définitifs. Tout ce que nous avons à faire est de repousser les imposteurs et de « redresser l'ancienne structure ».</p> <p>La compréhension confère alors une « persistance fixe ». Mais, dit Hegel, et c'est salutaire si totalement inattendu :</p> <p>« C'est une impuissance subjective de la raison qui permet à ces déterminités de compter de cette manière, et est incapable de les ramener à l'unité par la force dialectique qui s'oppose à cette Universelité abstraite, c'est-à-dire par la nature propre (autrement dit, le concept) de ces déterminités. »</p> <p>Voici deux idées d'une importance considérable pour nous. La raison laisse la mauvaise Compréhension coincée dans ses finitudes. La raison subjective est responsable. Il est trop faible pour combler l'écart. L'effort doit être fait. Et comment ? En voyant la nature particulière, c'est-à-dire le Concept de ces déterminités fixes, limitées. C'est assez clair. Le concept est une classe ouvrière libre et créative, une classe ouvrière qui n'est pas ce qu'elle est dans le capitalisme. Le Concept déterminée fait de son mieux, mais quand celle-ci est épuisée, il faut revenir au socialisme, à votre Universel du commencement, et ainsi vous débarrasser d'un particulier épuisé, fini, limité. Un nouveau particulier est nécessaire.</p> <p>Comprendre est malicieux. C'est exact.</p> <p>Il est vrai qu'à travers la forme de l'Universelité abstraite, l'entendement leur donne ce qu'on peut appeler une dureté d'Être telle qu'ils n'en possèdent pas dans les sphères de la Qualité et de la Réflexion ; mais par cette simplification l'entendement les spiritualise aussi et les aiguise tellement qu'ils ne reçoivent qu'à ce point extrême la capacité de se dissoudre et de passer dans leur contraire.</p> <p>Comprendre, par son obstination, son adhésion aux catégories finies, les prépare à l'étape où elles doivent se dissoudre et passer dans leur contraire. Gardez à l'esprit que l'Universel utilise un particulier. Quand ce particulier n'est pas bon, il le jette. Ce particulier périt.</p> <p>La maturité ou le stade le plus élevé que quelque chose puisse atteindre est celui où il commence à périr.</p> <p>C'est à ce stade que la Raison subjective est obligée, OBLIGEE, d'intervenir. Nous aurons souvent besoin de cette idée.</p> <p>Mais c'est la propriété particulière du Concept.</p> <p>L'entendement commet la bévue des bévues en rendant impérissable le concept déterminée. La seule chose impérissable est l'Universelité du concept. Cette qualité appartient au Concept seul.</p> <p>Et par conséquent la dissolution du fini s'exprime en lui-même et dans une proximité infinie.</p> <p>C'est l'Universel qui indique clairement que les catégories finies vont être détruites, aussi fondées qu'elles soient.</p> <p>Cette Universelité argumente d'emblée la déterminité du fini et exprime son insuffisance à lui-même. Ou plutôt, l'adéquation du fini est déjà donnée ; le déterminé abstrait est posé comme ne faisant qu'un avec l'Universelité, et non pour lui seul, car alors il ne serait que déterminé, mais seulement comme unité de soi et de l'universel, c'est-à-dire comme Concept.</p> <p>L'argument général est clair. Si ce n'est pas le cas, résolvez-le vous-même.</p> <p>Hegel dit : « La pratique ordinaire de séparer l'entendement et la raison doit donc être condamnée à tous égards.</p> <p>La compréhension a sa place. C'est l'abus de la catégorie fixe et limitée qui est criminel. Et Hegel joue sur une note triste mais salutaire. Comprendre, en portant la chose aux hauteurs qu'elle fait, prépare ainsi la voie à la Raison pour faire le saut. Si vous n'êtes pas en mesure de dire que notre catégorie très fondée sur des principes, la propriété nationalisée, et une catégorie fondée sur des principes, cela peut sembler être, si vous n'êtes pas en mesure de dire : « Compte tenu de ce qu'est le socialisme, je dois répudier cette catégorie et obtenir revenir aux fondamentaux et créer un nouveau critère », si vous ne pouvez pas faire cela, alors vous persistez dans la détermination et finissez par faire de la fausse détermination le moyen par lequel vous détruisez tout.</p> <p>Je ne vois pas comment une personne raisonnable peut nier autant : que Hegel, face aux théoriciens de l'État ouvrier, puisse dire : « Je connais ces gens. J'ai vu ce genre de chose arriver des dizaines de fois. J'en ai parlé dans le Concept.</p> <p>Mais ce n'est pas tout. Le concept a, vous vous en souvenez, une troisième division, Individuelle. Vous vous souvenez des trois, Universel, Particulier, Individuel. L'individu est le même que l'Actualité. Le béton. (Mais nous avons affaire à la pensée, le concret est l'étape concrète de la pensée.) À mon avis, nous avons le socialisme, l'Universel, qui cherche un endroit où se placer. Le marxisme, en général, propose un programme général. Formons une Internationale de tels ou tels principes. C'est un Particulier. Mais le 14 mai 1871, Karl Marx n'écrit pas en général mais concrètement un document sur la Commune de Paris, et exprime certaines idées, propositions et prévisions concrètes. Dans la sphère de la pensée, ce document est un concret, un Individu.</p> <p>Maintenant, le Particulier est à mi-chemin entre l'Universel et l'Individuel. Lorsque vous en sortez, vous pouvez en sortir, soit en revenant à l'Universel - puis l'Universel, sans tenir compte du particulier, "monte au genre le plus élevé et le plus élevé" - ou vous « descendre » (mot de Hegel) dans l'Individu concret. J'espère que le point est clair. Et puis vient une superbe déclaration :</p> <p>« A ce point se produit la divagation par laquelle l'abstraction quitte la route du concept et déserte la vérité. »</p> <p>C'est précisément la théorie de la révolution permanente de Trotsky. La lutte concrète en Russie, il a ignoré. Était-ce une révolution bourgeoise ? Lénine disait que c'était et menait concrètement la guerre prolétarienne contre la bourgeoisie libérale et les mencheviks, leurs agents. Son programme, ses idées, son Concept de socialisme, oui, de socialisme, pouvaient trouver sa profondeur la plus profonde précisément à cause de cette concrétude. Mais la théorie de Trotsky de la révolution permanente ? Hegel immédiatement, le cloue immédiatement. À ce stade, dit-il, se produit la divagation de la vérité. Et quelle forme prend-il ?</p> <p>Son universel le plus élevé et le plus élevé auquel il s'élève n'est que la surface qui a de moins en moins de contenu.</p> <p>Précisément. La révolution permanente n'avait aucun contenu. La seule chose concrète qui en est ressortie, c'est qu'elle a conduit Trotsky toujours vers les mencheviks et contre le léninisme, dans toutes les années longues, dures, difficiles où s'est martelé le bolchevisme. Il méprisait le béton. Comme Hegel poursuit :</p> <p>« L'Individualité qu'il méprise est cette profondeur dans laquelle le concept se comprend et se pose comme Concept. »</p> <p>Si quelqu'un peut comprendre cela, nous le pouvons. Trotsky s'est envolé dans les minces abstractions de la révolution permanente. Il n'en est rien sorti. Rien. Et ce sont les théories concrètes de Lénine, traitant de l'actuel, de l'Individu, d'où sont venues toutes les merveilleuses intuitions et lumières qui ont enrichi le concept de socialisme.</p> <p>Le Concept est concret. C'est pensé mais c'est du concret. C'est un jugement, une décision, une action, une intervention. Ce n'est pas la connaissance dans la tête pour la tête. La matière, la société, agit par impulsion, fait ses nœuds, les nœuds forment de vieilles catégories, les vieilles catégories font de nouvelles catégories, de nouvelles catégories clarifient la matière et la société, car la pensée m'apprend l'action intelligente. Les catégories sont la forme la plus haute de la matière, en tout cas inséparable de la matière, la forme d'aujourd'hui, qui sera contenue demain parce qu'elle est déjà un contenu, un contenu posé. Sans cette concrétude, le concept n'a pas sa place. Vous ne pouvez pas l'appréhender par abstraction. L'abstraction reste immobile sans individualité.</p> <p>La Vie, l'Esprit, Dieu, et aussi le concept pur ne peuvent donc pas être appréhendés par l'abstraction, car elle éloigne de ses produits l'Individualité, principe de singularité et de personnalité, et n'atteint ainsi que des universelités dépourvues à la fois de vie et d'esprit, de couleur et de contenu.</p> <p>La théorie de Trotsky de la révolution permanente y manquait précisément. C'est Lénine qui tirait de la vie concrète, l'esprit, la couleur, le contenu. Mais ce ne sont pas seulement les luttes de 1905-1917. Les luttes d'aujourd'hui éclairent ces analyses absolument incroyables de Hegel, incroyables parce que si universellement valables. La Quatrième Internationale officielle n'a aucune conception du socialisme. Tout ce que Trotsky peut dire sur la Russie après vingt-cinq ans, c'est : réviser le plan, réintégrer les soviets. Il n'a rien appris. Le même vieux contenu, pas de vie, pas d'esprit, pas de couleur. Et nous, avons-nous une vie, un esprit, une couleur particuliers ? Que d'autres devront juger. J'aborderai ce problème avant que nous ayons terminé. Mais je le répète maintenant comme nous l'avons dit dans The Invading Socialist Society : Si vous réimprimez « L'Etat et la Révolution », « La catastrophe imminente », « Les bolcheviks peuvent-ils conserver le pouvoir d'État » et « Les Tâches immédiates du gouvernement soviétique », vous obtenez une image plus claire du socialisme concret, des perspectives concrètes, des actions concrètes à suivre pour les travailleurs que dans tous les écrits de la Quatrième Internationale depuis vingt-cinq ans.</p> <p>Hegel est impitoyable. Et je m'émerveille constamment de la quantité de travail qu'il a dû faire pour que la chose soit si simple, dans les abstractions. Il continue ainsi à déchirer la Compréhension :<br class='autobr' /> Vous ne pouvez pas échapper aux conséquences du concept. Un concept est une concept. Il embrasse toutes les parties et elles sont inséparables. La compréhension obtient d'abord des Universelités dépourvues de toute couleur, contenu, vie et esprit. Mais ces produits de l'abstraction qui ont méprisé l'Individu, le concret, sont des individus eux-mêmes. La compréhension prend le concret et en fait un universel. Il ne voit donc l'Universel que comme l'Universelité déterminée : et donc le concret, l'Individu, qu'il a élevé dans cette position, s'est chargé de l'immense tâche de se déterminer (rapport à soi). Pour cela le béton ainsi poussé dans la situation d'Universel est tout à fait inadapté.</p> <p>Cela vous semble-t-il plutôt abstrait ? Pas à moi. Nous avons vu la propriété nationalisée, le béton en Russie, pris et poussé dans la position d'Universel. Qu'est-ce que le socialisme, qu'est-ce qu'il vise, qu'est-ce qu'il signifie pour moi, tout cela est passé à la trappe. C'est devenu la plus pure abstraction : les partis ouvriers rivalisant pacifiquement dans leurs soviets, le plan révisé dans l'intérêt des travailleurs, etc. il y a. Vous faites remarquer qu'en 1928 quand ils étaient revenus au niveau de 1917, il n'y en avait peut-être que quelques milliers, voire plus, dans les camps de concentration, etc. Mais à chaque fois que le charbon, l'acier, etc. la corruption augmente, et nous avons donc un graphique. Au fur et à mesure que la production planifiée augmente, ainsi chaque mal bourgeois augmente jusqu'à ce que nous ayons quinze à vingt millions dans des camps de concentration, des camps de travaux forcés, etc., et un état aussi monstrueux qu'aucun mortel n'avait jamais imaginé. Il est sûrement temps de penser au socialisme – d'examiner ce que nous entendons par lui et ce que nous entendons par lui. Non, pas pour eux. Le tout tourne autour de la propriété nationalisée et si, si la propriété nationalisée continue à préserver la bureaucratie et à commettre ces monstruosités, alors allons-nous enfin revenir en arrière pour réexaminer notre universel, le socialisme ? Par Christ, non. En finir avec le marxisme à la place. Jetez-le. Cela nous a fait défaut. La propriété nationalisée reste maîtresse du terrain.Il est sûrement temps de penser au socialisme – d'examiner ce que nous entendons par lui et ce que nous entendons par lui. Non, pas pour eux. Le tout tourne autour de la propriété nationalisée et si, si la propriété nationalisée continue à préserver la bureaucratie et à commettre ces monstruosités, alors allons-nous enfin revenir en arrière pour réexaminer notre universel, le socialisme ? Par Christ, non. En finir avec le marxisme à la place. Jetez-le. Cela nous a fait défaut. La propriété nationalisée reste maîtresse du terrain.Il est sûrement temps de penser au socialisme – d'examiner ce que nous entendons par lui et ce que nous entendons par lui. Non, pas pour eux. Le tout tourne autour de la propriété nationalisée et si, si la propriété nationalisée continue à préserver la bureaucratie et à commettre ces monstruosités, alors allons-nous enfin revenir en arrière pour réexaminer notre universel, le socialisme ? Par Christ, non. En finir avec le marxisme à la place. Jetez-le. Cela nous a fait défaut. La propriété nationalisée reste maîtresse du terrain.La propriété nationalisée reste maîtresse du terrain.La propriété nationalisée reste maîtresse du terrain.</p> <p>Voici l'extrait, jugez par vous-même :</p> <p>« Mais l'unité du concept est si inséparable que même ces produits de l'abstraction, alors qu'ils sont censés omettre l'Individualité, sont eux-mêmes des individus. Elle élève le concret en Universelité et ne prend l'universel que comme Universelité déterminée : mais alors c'est justement l'Individualité qui a abouti à la forme d'une déterminité se rapportant à elle-même. Par conséquent l'abstraction est une séparation du concret et un isolement de ses déterminations : elle ne saisit que des propriétés et des moments individuels, car son produit doit contenir ce qu'elle est elle-même. »</p> <p>Vous obtenez la dernière phrase ? Cet Universel Abstrait déchire le béton en morceaux. Il en prend des morceaux isolés, et avec cela comme base de sa pensée, tout ce qu'il peut maintenant produire, c'est ce qu'il a repris et transformé en un Universel. C'est toute la procédure des étatistes ouvriers. Germain ne pense qu'en termes de propriété nationalisée, de plan, de double caractère de la bureaucratie. Il pouvait dire : en Pologne, la nationalisation avait eu lieu avant l'arrivée des Russes. Les Russes ont détruit le pouvoir sur lequel les ouvriers avaient la main et ont ramené des éléments de la classe bourgeoise. Tout ce que Germain a à dire, c'est : c'est ou n'est pas exactement la propriété nationalisée et voilà en tout cas le double caractère de la bureaucratie. Son Universel n'est pas l'élaboration minutieuse du concept de base que Marx et Engels ont fait après tout événement - Marx sur la Commune, Lénine dans État et révolution. Non monsieur. Son Universel est désormais propriété nationalisée et tous ses produits portent ce sceau.</p> <p>Voyez maintenant ce qui se passe. Cet Universel a pris en lui le concret, l'Individuel, poussant l'Universel réel dans l'air raréfié de la plus abstraite des abstractions. L'individuel comme contenu et l'universel comme forme sont distincts l'un de l'autre. Vous vous souvenez qu'au début l'Universel est entré librement dans la Première Internationale. Ce programme, cette conception n'étaient pas parfaits, mais tel qu'il était, on pouvait en parler en termes de socialisme. Vous avez pris l'Universel comme une forme dans laquelle vous avez placé, élaboré le contenu particulier que vous aviez. Vous vous souvenez aussi que cela rendait l'Universel abstrait, mais une abstraction qui « revêtait » le contenu particulier. Mais ici, l'Universel en tant que forme est une chose. Le contenu en est une autre. Même Germain ne peut pas utiliser les termes du socialisme pour décrire la barbarie russe,et personne aujourd'hui n'a le culot de dire que le prolétariat en Russie est la classe dirigeante. L'Universel de l'entendement, de Germain, n'est pas la forme absolue. Il ne peut même pas parler de ces nécessités absolues du socialisme, des travailleurs, du pouvoir, de l'action indépendante, des travailleurs maîtres d'eux-mêmes, en opposition fondamentale au capitalisme, où le système industriel est leur esclavagiste. Non. Germain ne peut le faire que par abstraction. Si inadéquate que fût la Première Internationale, en tant que conception, elle pouvait se « revêtir » de ces choses. (Je considère que c'est le sens général du passage. L'original doit être recherché en allemand.) Mais tandis que nous poursuivons l'examen, nous voyons finalement que cette compréhension abstraite a produit une sorte particulière d'universelité. En le rendant si abstrait et en le liant ensuite au concret,l'Universel abstrait lui-même est devenu un concret.</p> <p>Voici l'extrait :</p> <p>« La distinction entre cette individualité de ses produits et l'Individualité du concept est que, dans la première, l'individuel comme contenu et l'universel comme forme sont distincts l'un de l'autre - simplement parce que le premier n'existe pas comme forme absolue, ou comme le Concept elle-même, ni celle-ci comme totalité de la forme. Mais cette considération plus approfondie montre l'abstrait lui-même comme unité du contenu individuel et de l'Universelité abstraite, c'est-à-dire comme concret – ce qui est le contraire de ce qu'il est censé être. »</p> <p>Et en 1948 on n'opère pas dans le vide. Au moment où vous perdez l'Universel socialiste, aucun pouvoir sur terre ne peut vous sauver de la barbarie capitaliste d'État.</p> <p>Maintenant pour le passage final. Cela nous offre une bonne occasion de résumer. Souvenez-vous que le mouvement du concept est le développement. C'est le pouvoir gratuit. C'est la pensée, remarquez, le concept qui recherche l'accomplissement dans la pensée. Le Manifeste communiste, le Manifeste et programme de la Première Internationale, Marx sur la Commune, Lénine dans l'État et la révolution. C'est le concept qui se développe. L'Etat et la Révolution de Lénine est une forme particulière de l'Universel comme l'est le programme de l'Internationale Communiste et des 21 points. Mais l'Individuel concret, ce sont les lois, les décisions, les articles, les décrets, les discours, etc. au jour le jour. C'est le concret, le concept individuelle. Pour que l'Universel du socialisme et la forme particulière de l'État et de la Révolution se concrétisent dans les actes individuels, les idées, les lieux, les programmes et les conflits, etc.L'abstrait est l'âme de l'Individu, le concret. Pourquoi ? Car sans l'Universel et le Particulier, le concret n'a aucun sens. C'est un cas avancé de la relation entre l'Idée et la Réalité dont nous avons traité dans la Doctrine de l'Essence.<br class='autobr' /> Voici l'extrait :<br class='autobr' /> Mais l'Individualité n'est pas seulement le retour du concept en elle-même ; c'est aussi immédiatement sa perte. Dans l'Individualité, c'est en soi ; et, à cause de la manière dont il est en soi, il devient extérieur à lui-même et entre en acte. L'abstraction est l'âme de l'individualité et, en tant que telle, est le rapport du négatif au négatif ; et elle, comme on l'a vu, n'est pas extérieure à l'universel et au particulier, mais immanente ; et à travers elle, ils sont concrets, contenus et individuels. Et l'Individualité en tant que cette Négativité est la déterminité déterminée, c'est la distinction en tant que telle ; à travers cette introRéflexion de distinction, elle se fixe ; la détermination du particulier n'a lieu que par l'Individualité, car c'est cette abstraction qui maintenant, en tant qu'Individualité, est l'abstraction posée.<br class='autobr' /> Je vous conseille de ne pas être pressé. Lisez les passages encore et encore, surtout les plus difficiles. Familiarisez-vous avec eux. Il y a une grande tentation. Il s'agit de les lire, de n'avoir qu'une idée générale, puis de s'accrocher à ce qui est familier – l'analyse purement sociale et politique que je fais à la suite de ces sections techniques. Si vous faites cela, vous n'apprendrez jamais à gérer la Logique. Travaillez sur ces passages techniques pour ce qu'ils enseignent mais aussi en tant qu'exercices, jusqu'à ce qu'ils s'imprègnent, et vous commencez à penser en ces termes.<br class='autobr' /> Il nous reste maintenant à faire un dernier passage de cette Introduction à le concept. Ne soyez pas induits en erreur par mes sauts et sauts comme je dois le faire, en oubliant que la cohérence interne, la logique structurelle de la logique elle-même est merveilleuse. Développement en développement, en général, puis s'est divisé en ses parties, et le développement du premier a été repris, mais maintenant à un niveau plus élevé et une pénétration plus profonde, pour exploser, sauter dans quelque chose de plus élevé, après quoi les anciens processus gagnent de nouvelles profondeurs, etc. C'est précisément la logique. Ce n'est pas la vie, c'est-à-dire l'histoire. Et ce n'est que lorsque la logique est un mouvement logique et impeccable que vous pouvez alors faire face aux innombrables manifestations de la vie. Je ne peux que le mentionner et le signaler ici et là en passant. Mais pour le démontrer, non, pas moi.<br class='autobr' /> Ainsi, avant de terminer le concept en général, Hegel revient sur quelque chose qui l'a toujours concerné. Il l'a commencé dans la Doctrine de l'Être – Qualité – avec l'infini réel et l'infini mort. Il y est revenu dans la Doctrine de l'Essence en Fond, et l'Être ou le non-Être du Fini comme base du Fond. Maintenant, il nous a montré comment l'Universel prend un particulier dans le Particulier et devient concret dans l'Individu. trouvera la base d'autres abstractions encore. Car l'individu va passer à autre chose. Maintenant :<br class='autobr' /> L'individu, alors, en tant que négativité en rapport avec lui-même, est l'auto-identité immédiate du négatif ; c'est-pour-soi. Autrement dit, c'est l'abstraction qui détermine le concept, selon son moment (qui est de nature idéale) d'Être, comme immédiat. Ainsi l'individu est un Un ou Ceci qualitatif.<br class='autobr' /> Il la ramène à la qualité, la Doctrine de l'Être. Souvenez-vous maintenant de votre Doctrine de l'Être :<br class='autobr' /> Selon cette qualité, c'est d'abord l'auto-répulsion, par laquelle les nombreux autres Un sont présupposés ; et deuxièmement, c'est une relation négative contre ces autres présupposés ; et, dans cette mesure, l'individu est exclusif.<br class='autobr' /> Mais – comme l'écrivait Rosa Luxemburg – attention ! L'universelité doit surveiller sa relation avec ces Uns concrets. L'universelité est un moment du concret, l'Individu. Mais ce n'est pas simplement un élément de l'Individu.<br class='autobr' /> Si par universel on entend ce qui est commun à plus d'un individu, alors le commencement se fait de leur persistance indifférente, et l'immédiateté de l'Être se mêle à la détermination du concept. L'image la plus basse possible de l'universel dans son rapport à l'individuel est ce rapport extérieur de celui-ci comme simple élément commun.<br class='autobr' /> Vous dites que, quelle que soit la forme que peut prendre un État ouvrier concret, il se distingue toujours par la propriété nationalisée. C'est la forme la plus basse possible de l'Universel. Le reste de la section reprend cela en détail. Hegel, en particulier ici dans le concept, insiste sur le fait que l'Individualité est posée « non dans l'extérieur mais dans une distinction conceptnelle » – la propriété nationalisée doit être considérée à la lumière de votre concept de ce qu'est le socialisme. Ne fais pas ça. Ne commettez pas l'erreur de prendre ce concret, cet élément persistant simplement commun pour l'Universel ! Vous finirez alors, aussi sûrement que le jour, par en faire toute votre idée. Alors vous dites : le monde a maintenant atteint un stade où le capitalisme ne peut plus continuer. De là vous dites que cette économie doit évidemment être nationalisée et planifiée. Vous dites alors que si la bureaucratie russe perdure longtemps,après la guerre, c'est évidemment le précurseur d'une nouvelle classe dirigeante. Ensuite, nous devons convenir que l'attente marxiste du socialisme est une utopie. C'est là que vous atterrissez dans la pensée et nous avons affaire à la pensée. Que Trotsky en tant qu'individu se serait jeté du côté des masses et aurait répudié le pessimisme et le défaitisme dans le feu de la lutte des classes, dont nous n'avons pas à discuter. Mais toute la méthodologie avait en elle la destruction de la base sur laquelle il se tenait. Car il déclara plus précisément que la bureaucratie russe restaurerait la propriété privée. De sorte que bien que le temps de sa continuation ne soit pas trop important (la situation mondiale étant ce qu'elle est) la détermination évidente de la bureaucratie à maintenir la propriété nationalisée et à mener une autre guerre mondiale pour elle, ceci,ronge le cœur de ceux qui insistent pour continuer la méthode de Trotsky. Il a fait d'un fini un infini. Il a pris l'être du fini et en a fait un Absolu. Il a pris un moment de l'Universel et en a fait l'Universel lui-même. D'où ces larmes. Hegel n'en a pas fini avec ça d'ailleurs. Dans sa dernière section de l'Idée de la cognition, il prend cette persistance finie et finie, être et non-être de l'Absolu, persistance commune dans le concept et l'enracine finalement dans un étalage magistral sur la Définition. Mais je peux vous dire à l'avance que je laisserai de côté la Définition. Trop est impliqué.Hegel n'en a pas fini avec ça d'ailleurs. Dans sa dernière section de l'Idée de la cognition, il prend cette persistance finie et finie, être et non-être de l'Absolu, persistance commune dans le concept et l'enracine finalement dans un étalage magistral sur la Définition. Mais je peux vous dire à l'avance que je laisserai de côté la Définition. Trop est impliqué.Hegel n'en a pas fini avec ça d'ailleurs. Dans sa dernière section de l'Idée de la cognition, il prend cette persistance finie et finie, être et non-être de l'Absolu, persistance commune dans le concept et l'enracine finalement dans un étalage magistral sur la Définition. Mais je peux vous dire à l'avance que je laisserai de côté la Définition. Trop est impliqué.<br class='autobr' /> Et maintenant, avant de continuer, faites-moi une petite faveur, mes amis. Asseyez-vous et lisez toute cette section précédente. Non ? D'ACCORD. Comme Marx l'a dit dans le dernier paragraphe de la Critique du programme de Gotha, faites ce que vous voulez maintenant. J'ai sauvé ma propre âme.<br class='autobr' /> Le léninisme et le concept<br class='autobr' /> Le lecteur perspicace (le lecteur sceptique que nous pouvons ignorer, le lecteur hostile à qui nous portons des blessures meurtrières dans chaque paragraphe), le lecteur perspicace dira maintenant : « Incroyable, je suis d'accord. Ce Hegel semble avoir élaboré un moyen par lequel les hommes, une fois qu'ils ont déraillé, peuvent être vus suivre comme s'ils étaient envoûtés certains schémas de pensée. Vos illustrations dirigées contre le trotskisme éclairent certainement le trotskisme. Mais dans l'ensemble, ceci, si précieux qu'il soit, est ici négatif. Vous dites, par exemple, que l'Universel de Trotsky est sans couleur, sans contenu, etc. – pure abstraction. Quel est le vôtre, en utilisant la méthode dialectique ? Montrez-moi comment vous, en ne montant pas au « genre le plus élevé et le plus élevé », mais en vous en tenant à l'Individualité, enrichissez votre Universel. Vous dites, Lénine l'a fait en Russie avant 1917. Je suis d'accord, plus ou moins. Je suis un lecteur averti.Je vois que vous élaborez, étape par étape, une position positive. Je pense qu'il est grand temps que nous accordions plus d'attention à cela et moins au trotskisme. »<br class='autobr' /> Correct dans l'ensemble, mais seulement dans l'ensemble. Mais nous allons maintenant nous installer dans un exposé concret et non général de la pensée dialectique qui nous montrera le concept en action. La preuve sera le résultat. Et pour dissiper tout doute, permettez-moi de dire ici tout de suite : je propose, étape par étape, de construire une ligne de développement positive, je l'ai fait, qui aboutira à une concept incontestablement concrète du socialisme comme universel et la lutte révolutionnaire aujourd'hui, et demain, pas demain en général, mais notre demain. Ce travail serait inutile, en fait réactionnaire (je ne peux pas rester pour expliquer) s'il ne faisait pas cela. Mais la bonne méthode pour le faire est la méthode que je suis. Ce sera plus facile pour ceux qui suivront. Je pars de zéro.<br class='autobr' /> Mais ce travail est préliminaire à cela. Patience. Patience. Patience. Frayez-vous un chemin. Nous devons avoir une concept du socialisme, le concept de 1948. Mais nous devons travailler à travers le léninisme. Aujourd'hui, notre mouvement n'est pas au-delà du léninisme. Le prolétariat est bien au-delà du prolétariat du temps de Lénine. Mais notre mouvement ne l'est pas. Pour le dépasser, nous devons entrer en lui et à travers lui. Mais le processus exige, pour nous, l'exposition complète et patiente du trotskysme de toutes parts. On n'en a pas fini avec ça. Apprenez de Hegel. Apprenez à revenir et revenir à la Compréhension, jusqu'à ce que la méthode devienne une partie de la structure, la structure de l'esprit. Efforcez-vous d'avoir un « aperçu assez simple » de l'ensemble de l'entreprise. Vous lirez la Logique et découvrirez des choses par vous-même. Si vous n'avez ni le temps ni l'énergie pour cette grande tâche, lisez ces extraits,maintes et maintes fois, en travaillant les interprétations, en en faisant de nouvelles, en les connaissant presque par cœur. Ce serait une catastrophe si vous lisiez ceci avec l'idée que ce n'était qu'une justification, une préparation à nos théories concrètes. Pire encore, si quand tout était fini, quelqu'un disait : « Bien. Maintenant, que faisons-nous maintenant. Comment la mettre en pratique dans la lutte des classes ? Dieu nous aide, cette attitude serait assez horrible. Je pense qu'aucun d'entre nous ne l'aura.cette attitude serait assez horrible. Je pense qu'aucun d'entre nous ne l'aura.cette attitude serait assez horrible. Je pense qu'aucun d'entre nous ne l'aura.<br class='autobr' /> Mais j'écris en famille et comme ces idées me frappent, je les pose. Je suis un peu nerveux, voyez-vous, qu'à mesure que nous élargissons notre théorie et que nous nous clarifions politiquement, tout le travail sur la Logique semble avoir été fait dans ce but. Assez de cela. Logique pour théorie, mais à ce stade aussi, pour nous, logique pour logique.<br class='autobr' /> Ceci étant dit, nous pouvons maintenant nous déplacer dans la sphère théorique. Nous sommes maintenant équipés pour lutter contre le léninisme, le point culminant de notre mouvement jusqu'à présent. Nous devons monter à cette hauteur pour avancer dans l'infini, l'infini inexploré qui nous fait face.<br class='autobr' /> Si la discussion fait rage autour des conclusions politiques en tant que telles, et non autour des conclusions politiques en termes juridiques, alors, du moins dans l'immédiat, le temps est perdu.</p> <p>Source : <a href="https://translate.google.fr/translate?u=" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://translate.google.fr/translate?u=</a> <a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1019" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1019</a></p> <p><a href="https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/archive/james-clr/works/dialecti/index.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr&_x_tr_pto=nui" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/archive/james-clr/works/dialecti/index.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr&_x_tr_pto=nui</a></p></div> Religion in Hegel's Philosophy of History part IV http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8658 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8658 2025-06-26T06:24:18Z text/html fr Robert Paris Religion Hegel <p>Hegel's Philosophy of History part IV <br class='autobr' /> Chapter I. Christianity. <br class='autobr' /> It has been remarked that Caesar inaugurated the Modern World on the side of reality, while its spiritual and inward existence was unfolded under Augustus. At the beginning of that empire, whose principle we have recognized as finiteness and particular subjectivity exaggerated to infinitude, the salvation of the World had its birth in the same principle of subjectivity – viz., as a particular person, in abstract subjectivity, (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique96" rel="directory">09 - RELIGION</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot98" rel="tag">Religion</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><p>Hegel's Philosophy of History part IV</p> <p>Chapter I. Christianity.</p> <p>It has been remarked that Caesar inaugurated the Modern World on the side of reality, while its spiritual and inward existence was unfolded under Augustus. At the beginning of that empire, whose principle we have recognized as finiteness and particular subjectivity exaggerated to infinitude, the salvation of the World had its birth in the same principle of subjectivity – viz., as a particular person, in abstract subjectivity, but in such a way that conversely, finiteness is only the form of his appearance, while infinity and absolutely independent existence constitute the essence and substantial being which it embodies. The Roman World, as it has been described – in its desperate condition and the pain of abandonment by God – came to an open rupture with reality, and made prominent the general desire for a satisfaction such as can only be attained in “the inner man,” the Soul – thus preparing the ground for a higher Spiritual World. Rome was the Fate that crushed down the gods and all genial life in its hard service, while it was the power that purified the human heart from all speciality. Its entire condition is therefore analogous to a place of birth, and its pain is like the travail-throes of another and higher Spirit, which manifested itself in connection with the Christian Religion. This higher Spirit involves the reconciliation and emancipation of Spirit ; while man obtains the consciousness of Spirit in its universelity and infinity. The Absolute Object, Truth, is Spirit ; and as man himself is Spirit, he is present [is mirrored] to himself in that object, and thus in his Absolute Object has found Essential Being and his own essential being.[21] But in order that the objectivity of Essential Being may be done away with, and Spirit be no longer alien to itself – may be with itself [self- harmonized] – the Naturalness of Spirit – that in virtue of which man is a special, empirical existence – must be removed ; so that the alien element may be destroyed, and the reconciliation of Spirit be accomplished.</p> <p>God is thus recognized as Spirit, only when known as the Triune. This new principle is the axis on which the History of the World turns. This is the goal and the starting point of History. “When the fulness of the time was come, God sent his Son,” is the statement of the Bible. This means nothing else than that self-consciousness had reached the phases of development [Momente], whose resultant constitutes the Idea of Spirit, and had come to feel the necessity of comprehending those phases absolutely. This must now be more fully explained. We said of the Greeks, that the law for their Spirit was : “Man, know thyself.” The Greek Spirit was a consciousness of Spirit, but under a limited form, having the element of Nature as an essential ingredient. Spirit may have had the upper hand, but the unity of the superior and the subordinate was itself still Natural. Spirit appeared as specialized in the idiosyncrasies of the genius of the several Greek nationalities and of their divinities, and was represented by Art, in whose sphere the Sensuous is elevated only to the middle ground of beautiful form and shape, but not to pure Thought. The element of Subjectivity that was wanting to the Greeks, we found among the Romans : but as it was merely formal and in itself indefinite, it took its material from passion and caprice ; – even the most shameful degradations could be here connected with a divine dread (vide the declaration of Hispala respecting the Bacchanalia, Livy xxxix. 13). This element of subjectivity ‘s afterwards further realized as Personality of Individuals – a realization which is exactly adequate to the principle, and is equally abstract and formal. As such an Ego [such a personality], I am infinite to myself, and my phenomenal existence consists in the property recognized as mine, and the recognition of my personality. This inner existence goes no further ; all the applications of the principle merge in this. Individuals are thereby posited as atoms ; but they are at the same time subject to the severe rule of the One, which as monas monadum is a power over private persons [the connection between the ruler and the ruled is not mediated by the claim of Divine or of Constitutional Right, or any general principle, but is direct and individual, the Emperor being the immediate lord of each subject in the Empire]. That Private Right is therefore, ipso facto, a nullity, an ignoring of the personality ; and the supposed condition of Right turns out to be an absolute destitution of it. This contradiction is the misery of the Roman World. Each person is, according to the principle of his personality, entitled only to possesion, while the Person of Persons lays claim to the possession of all these individuals, so that the right assumed by the social unit is at once abrogated and robbed of validity. But the misery of this contradiction is the Discipline of the World. “Zucht” (discipline) is derived from “Ziehen” (to draw).[22] This “drawing” must be towards something ; there must be some fixed unity in the background in whose direction that drawing takes place, and for which the subject of it is being trained, in order that the standard of attainment may be reached. A renunciation, a disaccustoming, is the means of leading to an absolute basis of existence. That contradiction which afflicts the Roman World is the very state of things which constitutes such a discipline – the discipline of that culture which compels personality to display its nothingness. But it is reserved for us of a later period to regard this as a training ; to those who are thus trained [traines, dragged], it seems a blind destiny, to which they submit in the stupor of suffering. The higher condition, in which the soul itself feels pain and longing – in which man is not only “drawn,” but feels that the drawing is into himself [into his own inmost nature] – is still absent. What has been reflection on our part must arise in the mind of the subject of this discipline in the form of a consciousness that in himself he is miserable and null. Outward suffering must, as already said, be merged in a sorrow of the inner man. He must feel himself as the negation of himself ; he must see that his misery is the misery of his nature – that he is in himself a divided and discordant being. This state of mind, this self-chastening, this pain occasioned by our individual nothingness – the wretchedness of our [isolated] self, and the longing to transcend this condition of soul – must be looked for elsewhere than in the properly Roman World. It is this which gives to the Jewish People their World-Historical importance and weight ; for from this state of mind arose that higher phase in which Spirit came to absolute self-consciousness – passing from that alien form of being which is its discord and pain, and mirroring itself in its own essence. The state of feeling in question we find expressed most purely and beautifully in the Psalms of David, and in the Prophets ; the chief burden of whose utterances is the thirst of the soul after God, its profound sorrow for its transgressions, and the desire for righteousness and holiness. Of this Spirit we have the mythical representation at the very beginning of the Jewish canonical books, in the account of the Fall. Man, created in the image of God, lost, it is said, his state of absolute contentment, by eating of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Sin consists here only in Knowledge : this is the sinful element, and by it man is stated to have trifled away his Natural happiness. This is a deep truth, that evil lies in consciousness : for the brutes are neither evil nor good ; the merely Natural Man quite as little.[23]</p> <p>Consciousness occasions the separation of the Ego, in its boundless freedom as arbitrary choice, from the pure essence of the Will – i.e., from the Good. Knowledge, as the disannulling of the unity of mere Nature, is the “Fall,” which is no casual conception, but the eternal history of Spirit. For the state of innocence, the paradisaical condition, is that of the brute. Paradise is a park, where only brutes, not men, can remain. For the brute is one with God only implicitly [not consciously]. Only Man's Spirit (that is) has a self-cognizant existence. This existence for self, this consciousness, is at the same time separation from the Universel and Divine Spirit. If I hold to my abstract Freedom, in contraposition to the Good, I adopt the standpoint of Evil. The Fall is therefore the eternal Mythus of Man – in fact, the very transition by which he becomes man. Persistence in this standpoint is, however, Evil, and the feeling of pain at such a condition, and of longing to transcend it, we find in David, when he says : “Lord, create for me a pure heart, a new steadfast Spirit.” This feeling we observe even in the account of the Fall ; though an announcement of Reconciliation is not made there, but rather one of continuance in misery. Yet we have in this narrative the prediction of reconciliation in the sentence, “The serpent's head shall be bruised” ; but still more profoundly expressed where it is stated that when God saw that Adam had eaten of that tree, he said, “Behold Adam is become as one of us, knowing Good and Evil.” God confirms the words of the Serpent. Implicitly and explicitly, then, we have the truth, that man through Spirit – through cognition of the Universel and the Particular – comprehends God Himself. But it is only God that declares this – not man : the latter remains, on the contrary, in a state of internal discord. The joy of reconciliation is still distant from humanity ; the absolute and final repose of his whole being is not yet discovered to man. It exists, in the first instance, only for God. As far as the present is concerned, the feeling of pain at his condition is regarded as a final award. The satisfaction which man enjoys at first, consists in the finite and temporal blessings conferred on the Chosen Family and the possession of the Land of Canaan. His repose is not found in God. Sacrifices are, it is true, offered to Him in the Temple, and atonement made by outward offerings and inward penitence. But that mundane satisfaction in the Chosen Family, and its possession of Canaan, was taken from the Jewish people in the chastisement inflicted by the Roman Empire. The Syrian kings did indeed oppress it, but it was left for the Romans to annul its individuality. The Temple of Zion is destroyed ; the God-serving nation is scattered to the winds. Here every source of satisfaction is taken away, and the nation is driven back to the standpoint of that primeval mythus – the standpoint of that painful feeling which humanity experiences when thrown upon itself. Opposed to the universel Fatum of the Roman World, we have here the consciousness of Evil and the direction of the mind Godwards. All that remains to be done, is that this fundamental idea should be expanded to an objective universel sense, and be taken as the concrete existence of man – as the completion of his nature. Formerly the Land of Canaan and themselves as the people of God had been regarded by the Jews as that concrete and complete existence. But this basis of satisfaction is now lost, and thence arises the sense of misery and failure of hope in God, with whom that happy reality had been essentially connected. Here, then, misery is not the stupid immersion in a blind Fate, but a boundless energy of longing. Stoicism taught only that the Negative is not – that pain must not be recognized as a veritable existence ; but Jewish feeling persists in acknowledging Reality and desires harmony and reconciliation within its sphere ; for that feeling is based on the Oriental Unity of Nature – i.e., the unity of Reality, of Subjectivity, with the substance of the One Essential Being. Through the loss of mere outward reality Spirit is driven back within itself ; the side of reality is thus refined to Universelity, through the reference of it to the One. The Oriental antithesis of Light and Darkness is transferred to Spirit, and the Darkness becomes Sin. For the abnegation of reality there is no compensation but Subjectivity itself – the Human Will as intrinsically universel ; and thereby alone does reconciliation become possible. Sin is the discerning of Good and Evil as separation ; but this discerning likewise heals the ancient hurt, and is the fountain of infinite reconciliation. The discerning in question brings with it the destruction of that which is external and alien in consciousness, and is consequently the return of Subjectivity into itself. This, then, adopted into the actual self-consciousness of the World is the Reconciliation [atonement] of the World. From that unrest of infinite sorrow – in which the two sides of the antithesis stand related to each other – is developed the unity of God with Reality (which latter had been posited as negative i.e., with Subjectivity which had been separated from Him. The infinite loss is counterbalanced only by its infinity, and thereby becomes infinite gain. The recognition of the identity of the Subject and God was introduced into the World when the fulness of Time was come : the consciousness of this identity is the recognition of God in his true essence. The material of Truth is Spirit itself – inherent vital movement. The nature of God as pure Spirit, is manifested to man in the Christian Religion.</p> <p>But what is Spirit ? It is the one immutably homogeneous infinite – pure Identity – which in its second phase separates itself from itself and makes this second aspect Its own polar opposite, viz. as existence for and in self as contrasted with the Universel. But this separation is annulled by the fact that atomistic Subjectivity, as simple relation to itself [as occupied with self alone] is itself the Universel, the Identical with self. If Spirit be defined as absolute reflection within itself in virtue of its absolute duality – Love on the one hand as comprehending the Emotional [Empfindung], Knowledge on the other hand as Spirit [including the penetrative and active faculties, as opposed to the receptive] – it is recognized as Triune : the “Father” and the “Son,” and that duality which essentially characterizes it as “Spirit.” It must further be observed, that in this truth, the relation of man to this truth is also posited. For Spirit makes itself its own [polar] opposite – and is the return from this opposite into itself. Comprehended in pure ideality, that antithetic form of Spirit is the Son of God ; reduced to limited and particular conceptions, it is the World-Nature and Finite Spirit : Finite Spirit itself therefore is posited as a constituent element [Moment] in the Divine Being. Man himself therefore is comprehended in the Idea of God, and this comprehension may be thus expressed – that the unity of Man with God is posited in the Christian Religion. But this unity must not be superficially conceived, as if God were only Man, and Man, without further condition, were God. Man, on the contrary, is God only in so far as he annuls the merely Natural and Limited in his Spirit and elevates himself to God. That is to say, it is obligatory on him who is a partaker of the truth, and knows that he himself is a constituent [Moment] of the Divine Idea, to give up his merely natural being : for the Natural is the Unspiritual. In this Idea of God, then, is to be found also the Reconciliation that heals the pain and inward suffering of man. For Suffering itself is henceforth recognized as an instrument necessary for producing the unity of man with God. This implicit unity exists in the first place only for the thinking speculative consciousness ; but it must also exist for the sensuous, representative consciousness – it must become an object for the World – it must appear, and that in the sensuous form appropriate to Spirit, which is the human. Christ has appeared – a Man who is God – God who is Man ; and thereby peace and reconciliation have accrued to the World. Our thoughts naturally revert to the Greek anthropomorphism, of which we affirmed that it did not go far enough. For that natural elation of soul which characterized the Greeks did not rise to the Subjective Freedom of the Ego itself – to the inwardness that belongs to the Christian Religion – to the recognition of Spirit as a definite positive being. – The appearance of the Christian God involves further its being unique in its kind ; it can occur only once, for God is realized as Subject, and as manifested Subjectivity is exclusively One Individual. The Lamas are ever and anon chosen anew ; because God is known in the East as Substance, whose infinity of form is recognized merely in an unlimited multeity of outward and particular manifestations. But subjectivity as infinite relation to self, has its form in itself, and as manifested, must be a unity excluding all others. – Moreover the sensuous existence in which Spirit is embodied is only a transitional phase. Christ dies ; only as dead, is he exalted to Heaven and sits at the right hand of God ; only thus is he Spirit. He himself says : “When I am no longer with you, the Spirit will guide you into all truth.” Not till the Feast of Pentecost were the Apostles filled with the Holy Ghost. To the Apostles, Christ as living, was not that which he was to them subsequently as the Spirit of the Church, in which he became to them for the first time an object for their truly spiritual consciousness. On the same principle, we do not adopt the right point of view in thinking of Christ only as a historical bygone personality. So regarded, the question is asked, What are we to make of his birth, his Father and Mother, his early domestic relations, his miracles, etc.? – i.e., What is he unspiritually regarded ? Considered only in respect of his talents, character and morality – as a Teacher and so forth – we place him in the same category with Socrates and others, though his morality may be ranked higher. But excellence of character, morality, etc. – all this is not the ne plus ultra in the requirements of Spirit – does not enable man to gain the speculative idea of Spirit for his conceptive faculty. If Christ is to be looked upon only as an excellent, even impeccable individual, and nothing more, the conception of the Speculative Idea, of Absolute Truth is ignored. But this is the desideratum, the point from which we have to start. Make of Christ what you will, exegetically, critically, historically – demonstrate as you please, how the doctrines of the Church were and said, Behold my mother and my brethren ! For he that doeth the will of my Father in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister and mother.” Yes, it is even said : “Think not that I am come to send peace on the Earth. I am not come to send peace but the sword. For I am come to set a man against his father, and the daughter against her mother, and the mother-in-law against her daughter-in-law.” Here then is an abstraction from all that belongs to reality, even from moral ties. We may say that nowhere are to be found such revolutionary utterances as in the Gospels ; for everything that had been respected, is treated as a matter of indifference – as worthy of no regard.<br class='autobr' /> The next point is the development of this principle ; and the whole sequel of History is the history of its development. Its first realization is the formation by the friends of Christ, of a Society – a Church. It has been already remarked that only after the death of Christ could the Spirit come upon his friends ; that only then were they able to conceive the true idea of God, viz., that in Christ man is redeemed and reconciled : for in him the idea of eternal truth is recognized, the essence of man acknowledged to be Spirit, and the fact proclaimed that only by stripping himself of his finiteness and surrendering himself to pure self-consciousness, does he attain the truth. Christ – man as man – in whom the unity of God and man has appeared, has in his death, and his history generally, himself presented the eternal history of Spirit – a history which every man has to accomplish in himself, in order to exist as Spirit, or to become a child of God, a citizen of his kingdom. The followers of Christ, who combine on this principle and live in the spiritual life as their aim, form the Church, which is the Kingdom of God. “Where two or three are gathered together in my name” (i.e., “in the character of partakers in my being”) says Christ, “there am I in the midst of them.” The Church is a real present life in the Spirit of Christ.</p> <p>It is important that the Christian religion be not limited to the teachings of Christ himself : it is in the Apostles that the completed and developed truth is first exhibited. This complex of thought unfolded itself in the Christian community. That community, in its first experiences, found itself sustaining a double relation – first, a relation to the Roman World, and secondly, to the truth whose development was its aim. We will pursue these different relations separately. The Christian community found itself in the Roman world, and in this world the extension of the Christian religion was to take place. That community must therefore keep itself removed from all activity in the State – constitute itself a separate company, and not react against the decrees, views, and transactions of the state. But as it was secluded from the state, and consequently did not hold the Emperor for its absolute sovereign, it was the object of persecution and hate. Then was manifested that infinite inward liberty which it enjoyed, in the great steadfastness with which sufferings and sorrows were patiently borne for the sake of the highest truth. It was less the miracles of the Apostles that gave to Christianity its outward extension and inward strength, than the substance, the truth of the doctrine itself. Christ himself says : “Many will say to me at that day : Lord, Lord ! have we not prophesied in thy name, have we not cast out devils in thy name, have we not in thy name done many wonderful deeds ? Then will I profess unto them : I never knew you, depart from me all ye workers of iniquity.”</p> <p>As regards its other relation, viz., that to the Truth, it is especially important to remark that the Dogma – the Theoretical – was already matured within the Roman World, while we find the development of the State from that principle, a much later growth. The Fathers of the Church and the Councils constituted the dogma ; but a chief element in this constitution was supplied by the previous development of philosophy. Let us examine more closely how the philosophy of the time stood related to religion. It has already been remarked that the Roman inwardness and subjectivity, which presented itself only abstractly, as soulless personality in the exclusive position assumed by the Ego, was refined by the philosophy of Stoicism and Scepticism to the form of Universelity. The ground of Thought was thereby reached, and God was known in Thought as the One Infinite. The Universel stands here only as an unimportant predicate – not itself a Subject, but requiring a concrete particular application to make it such. But the One and Universel, the Illimitable conceived by fancy, is essentially Oriental ; for measureless conceptions, carrying all limited existence beyond its .proper bounds, are indigenous to the East. Presented in the domain of Thought itself, the Oriental One is the invisible and non-sensuous God of the Israelitish people, but whom they also make an object of conception as a person. This principle became World-Historical with Christianity. – In the Roman World, the union of the East and West had taken place in the first instance by means of conquest : it took place now inwardly, psychologically, also ; – the Spirit of the East spreading over the West. The worship of Isis and that of Mithra had been extended through the whole Roman World ; Spirit, lost in the outward and in limited aims, yearned after an Infinite. But the West desired a deeper, purely inward Universelity – an Infinite possessed at the same time of positive qualities. Again, it was in Egypt – in Alexandria, viz., the centre of communication between the East and the West – that the problem of the age was proposed for Thought ; and the solution now found was – Spirit. There the two principles came into scientific contact, and were scientifically worked out. It is especially remarkable to observe there, learned Jews such as Philo, connecting abstract forms of the concrete, which they derived from Plato and Aristotle, with their conception of the Infinite, and recognizing God according to the more concrete idea of Spirit, under the definition of the Logos. So, also, did the profound thinkers of Alexandria comprehend the unity of the Platonic and Aristotelian Philosophy ; and their speculative thinking attained those abstract ideas which are likewise the fundamental purport of the Christian religion. The application, by way of postulate, to the pagan religion, of ideas recognized as true, was a direction which philosophy had already taken among the heathen. Plato had altogether repudiated the current mythology, and, with his followers, was accused of Atheism. The Alexandrians, on the contrary, endeavored to demonstrate a speculative truth in the Greek conceptions of the gods : and the Emperor Julian the Apostate resumed the attempt, asserting that the pagan ceremonials had a strict connection with rationality. The heathen felt, as it were, obliged to give to their divinities the semblance of something higher than sensuous conceptions ; they therefore attempted to spiritualize them. Thus much is also certain, that the Greek religion contains a degree of Reason ; for the substance of Spirit is Reason, and its product must be something Rational. It makes a difference, however, whether Reason is explicitly developed in Religion, or merely adumbrated by it, as constituting its hidden basis. And while the Greeks thus spiritualized their sensuous divinities, the Christians also, on their side, sought for a profounder sense in the historical part of their religion. Just as Philo found a deeper import shadowed forth in the Mosaic record, and idealized what he considered the bare shell of the narrative, so also did the Christians treat their records – partly with a polemic view, but still more largely from a free and spontaneous interest in the process. But the instrumentality of philosophy in introducing these dogmas into the Christian Religion, is no sufficient ground for asserting that they were foreign to Christianity and had nothing to do with it. It is a matter of perfect indifference where a thing originated ; the only question is : “Is it true in and for itself ?” Many think that by pronouncing the doctrine to be Neo- Platonic, they have ipso facto banished it from Christianity. Whether a Christian doctrine stands exactly thus or thus in the Bible – the point to which the exegetical scholars of modern times devote all their attention – is not the only question. The Letter kills, the Spirit makes alive : this they say themselves, yet pervert the sentiment by taking the Understanding for the Spirit. It was the Church that recognized and established the doctrines in question – i.e. the Spirit of the Church ; and it is itself an Article of Doctrine : “I believe in a Holy Church ;"[24] as Christ himself also said : “The Spirit will guide you into all truth.” In the Nicene Council (A.D. 325), was ultimately established a fixed confession of faith, to which we still adhere : this confession had not, indeed, a speculative form, but the profoundly speculative is most intimately inwoven with the manifestation of Christ himself. Even in John (en arch hn o logos, ka o logos hn pros ton qewn un o logos) we see the commencement of a profounder comprehension. The profoundest thought is connected with the personality of Christ – with the historical and external ; and it is the very grandeur of the Christian religion that, with all this profundity, it is easy of comprehension by our consciousness in its outward aspect, while, at the same time, it summons us to penetrate deeper. It is thus adapted to every grade of culture, and yet satisfies the highest requirements.<br class='autobr' /> Having spoken of the relation of the Christian community to the Roman world on the one side, and to the truth contained in its doctrines on the other side, we come to the third point – in which both doctrine and the external world are concerned – the Church. The Christian community is the Kingdom of Christ – its influencing present Spirit being Christ : for this kingdom has an actual existence, not a merely future one. This spiritual actuality has, therefore, also a phenomenal existence ; and that, not only as contrasted with heathenism, but with secular existence generally. For the Church, as presenting this outward existence, is not merely a religion as opposed to another religion, but is at the same time a particular form of secular existence, occupying a place side by side with other secular existence. The religious existence of the Church is governed by Christ ; the secular side of its government is left to the free choice of the members themselves. Into this kingdom of God an organization must be introduced. In the first instance, all the members know themselves filled with the Spirit ; the whole community perceives the truth and gives expression to it ; yet, together with this common participation of spiritual influence, arises the necessity of a presidency of guidance and teaching – a body distinct from the community at large. Those are chosen as presidents who are distinguished for talents, character, fervor of piety, a holy life, learning, and culture generally. The presidents – those who have a superior acquaintance with that substantial Life of which all are partakers, and who are instructors in that Life – those who establish what is truth, and those who dispense its enjoyment – are distinguished from the community at large, as persons endowed with knowledge and governing power are from the governed. To the intelligent presiding body, the Spirit comes in a fully revealed and explicit form ; in the mass of the community that Spirit is only implicit. While, therefore, in the presiding body, the Spirit exists as self-appreciating and self-cognizant, it becomes an authority in spiritual as well as in secular matters – an authority for the truth and for the relation of each individual to the truth, determining how he should conduct himself so as to act in accordance with the Truth. This distinction occasions the rise of an Ecclesiastical Kingdom in the Kingdom of God. Such a distinction is inevitable ; but the existence of an authoritative government for the Spiritual, when closely examined, shows that human subjectivity in its proper form has not yet developed itself. In the heart, indeed, the evil will is surrendered, but the will, as human, is not yet interpenetrated by the Deity ; the human will is emancipated only abstractly – not in its concrete reality – for the whole sequel of History is occupied with the realization of this concrete Freedom. Up to this point, finite Freedom has been only annulled, to make way for infinite Freedom. The latter has not yet penetrated secular existence with its rays. Subjective Freedom has not yet attained validity as such : Insight [speculative conviction] does not yet rest on a basis of its own, but is content to inhere in the spirit of an extrinsic authority. That Spiritual [geistig] kingdom has, therefore, assumed the shape of an Ecclesiastical [geistlich] one, as the relation of the substantial being and essence of Spirit to human Freedom. Besides the interior organization already mentioned, we find the Christian community assuming also a definite external position, and becoming the possessor of property of its own. As property belonging to the spiritual world, it is presumed to enjoy special protection ; and the immediate inference from this is, that the Church has no dues to pay to the state, and that ecclesiastical persons are not amenable to the jurisdiction of the secular courts. This entails the government by the Church itself of ecclesiastical property and ecclesiastical persons. Thus there originates with the Church the contrasted spectacle of a body consisting only of private persons and the power of the Emperor on the secular side ; – on the other side, the perfect democracy of the spiritual community, choosing its own president. Priestly consecration, however, soon changes this democracy into aristocracy ; – though the further development of the Church does not belong to the period now under consideration, but must be referred to the world of a later date. It was then through the Christian Religion that the Absolute Idea of God, in its true conception, attained consciousness. Here Man, too, finds himself comprehended in his true nature, given in the specific conception of “the Son.” Man, finite when regarded for himself, is yet at the same time the Image of God and a fountain of infinity in himself. He is the object of his own existence – has in himself an infinite value, an eternal destiny. Consequently he has his true home in a super-sensuous world – an infinite subjectivity, gained only by a rupture with mere Natural existence and volition, and by his labor to break their power within him. This is religious self- consciousness. But in order to enter the sphere and display the active vitality of that religious life, humanity must become capable of it. This capability is the dunamis for that energeia. What therefore remains to be considered is, those conditions of humanity which are the necessary corollary to the consideration that Man is Absolute Self-consciousness – his Spiritual nature being the starting-point and presupposition. These conditions are themselves not yet of a concrete order, but simply the first abstract principles, which are won by the instrumentality of the Christian Religion for the secular State. First, under Christianity Slavery is impossible ; for man is man – in the abstract essence of his nature – is contemplated in God ; each unit of mankind is an object of the grace of God and of the Divine purpose : “God will have all men to be saved.” Utterly excluding all speciality, therefore, man, in and for himself – in his simple quality of man – has infinite value ; and this infinite value abolishes, ipso facto, all particularity attaching to birth or country. The other, the second principle, regards the subjectivity of man in its bearing on the Fortuitous – on Chance. Humanity has this sphere of free Spirituality in and for itself, and everything else must proceed from it. The place appropriated to the abode and presence of the Divine Spirit – the sphere in question – is Spiritual Subjectivity, and is constituted the place to which all contingency is amenable. It follows thence, that what we observed among the Greeks as a form of Customary Morality, cannot maintain its position in the Christian world. For that morality is spontaneous unreflected Wont ; while the Christian principle is independent subjectivity – the soil on which grows the True. Now an unreflected morality cannot continue to hold its ground against the principle of Subjective Freedom. Greek Freedom was that of Hap and “Genius” ; it was still conditioned by Slaves and Oracles ; but now the principle of absolute Freedom in God makes its appearance. Man now no longer sustains the relation of Dependence, but of Love – in the consciousness that he is a partaker in the Divine existence. In regard to particular aims [such as the Greeks referred to oracular decision], man now forms his own determinations and recognizes himself as plenipotentiary in regard to all finite existence. All that is special retreats into the background before that Spiritual sphere of subjectivity, which takes a secondary position only in presence of the Divine Spirit. The superstition of oracles and auspices is thereby entirely abrogated : Man is recognized as the absolute authority in crises of decision.</p> <p>It is the two principles just treated of, that now attach to Spirit in this its self-contained phase. The inner shrine of man is designed, on the one hand, to train the citizen of the religious life to bring himself into harmony with the Spirit of God ; on the other hand, this is the point du départ for determining secular relations, and its condition is the theme of Christian History. The change which piety effects must not remain concealed in the recesses of the heart, but must become an actual, present world, complying with the conditions prescribed by that Absolute Spirit. Piety of heart does not, per se, involve the submission of the subjective will, in its external relations, to that piety. On the contrary we see all passions increasingly rampant in the sphere of reality, because that sphere is looked down upon with contempt, from the lofty position attained by the world of mind, as one destitute of all claim and value. The problem to be solved is therefore the imbuing of the sphere of [ordinary] unreflected Spiritual existence, with the Idea of Spirit. A general observation here suggests itself. From time immemorial it has been customary to assume an opposition between Reason and Religion, as also between Religion and the World ; but on investigation this turns out to be only a distinction. Reason in general is the Positive Existence [Wesen] of Spirit, divine as well as human. The distinction between Religion and the World is only this – that Religion as such, is Reason in the soul and heart – that it is a temple in which Truth and Freedom in God are presented to the conceptive faculty : the State, on the other hand, regulated by the selfsame Reason, is a temple of Human Freedom concerned with the perception and volition of a reality, whose purport may itself be called divine. Thus Freedom in the State is preserved and established by Religion, since moral rectitude in the State is only the carrying out of that which constitutes the fundamental principle of Religion. The process displayed in History is only the manifestation of Religion as Human Reason – the production of the religious principle which dwells in the heart of man, under the form of Secular Freedom. Thus the discord between the inner life of the heart and the actual world is removed. To realize this is, however, the vocation of another people – or other peoples – viz., the German. In ancient Rome itself, Christianity cannot find a ground on which it may become actual, and develop an empire.</p> <p>Chapter III. The Byzantine Empire.</p> <p>With Constantine the Great the Christian religion ascended the throne of the empire. He was followed by a succession of Christian Emperors, interrupted only by Julian – who however, could do but little for the prostrate ancient faith. The Roman Empire embraced the whole civilized earth, from the Western Ocean to the Tigris – from the interior of Africa, to the Danube (Pannonia, Dacia). Christianity soon spread through the length and breadth of this enormous realm. Rome had long ceased to be the exclusive residence of the Emperors. Many of Constantine's predecessors had resided in Milan or other places ; and he himself established a second court in the ancient Byzantium, which received the name of Constantinople. From the first its population consisted chiefly of Christians, and Constantine lavished every appliance to render this new abode equal in splendor to the old. The empire still remained in its integrity till Theodosius the Great made permanent a separation that had been only occasional, and divided it between his two sons. The reign of Theodosius displayed the last faint glimmer of that splendor which had glorified the Roman world. Under him the pagan temples were shut, the sacrifices and ceremonies abolished, and paganism itself forbidden : gradually however it entirely vanished of itself. The heathen orators of the time cannot sufficiently express their wonder and astonishment at the monstrous contrast between the days of their forefathers and their own. “Our Temples have become Tombs. The places which were formerly adorned with the holy statues of the Gods are now covered with sacred bones (relics of the Martyrs) ; men who have suffered a shameful death for their crimes, whose bodies are covered with stripes, and whose heads have been embalmed, are the object of veneration.” All that was contemned is exalted ; all that was formerly revered, is trodden in the dust. The last of the pagans express this enormous contrast with profound lamentation. The Roman Empire was divided between the two sons of Theodosius. The elder, Arcadius, received the Eastern Empire : – Ancient Greece, with Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt ; the younger, Honorius, the Western : – Italy, Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain. Immediately after the death of Theodosius, confusion entered, and the Roman provinces were overwhelmed by alien peoples. Already, under the Emperor Valens, the Visigoths, pressed by the Huns, had solicited a domicile on the hither side of the Danube. This was granted them, on the condition that they should defend the border provinces of the empire. But maltreatment roused them to revolt. Valens was beaten and fell on the field. The later emperors paid court to the leader of these Goths. Alaric, the bold Gothic Chief, turned his arms against Italy. Stilicho, the general and minister of Honorius, stayed his course, A.D. 403, by the battle of Pollentia, as at a later date he also routed Radagaisus, leader of the Alans, Suevi, and others. Alaric now attacked Gaul and Spain, and on the fall of Stilicho returned to Italy. Rome was stormed and plundered by him A.D. 410. Afterwards Attila advanced on it with the terrible might of the Huns – one of those purely Oriental phenomena, which, like a mere storm-torrent, rise to a furious height and bear down everything in their course, but in a brief space are so completely spent, that nothing is seen of them but the traces they have left in the ruins which they have occasioned. Attila pressed into Gaul, where, A.D. 451, a vigorous resistance was offered him by Ætius, near Chalons on the Marne. Victory remained doubtful. Attila subsequently marched upon Italy and died in the year 453. Soon afterwards however Rome was taken and plundered by the Vandals under Genseric. Finally, the dignity of the Western Emperors became a farce, and their empty title was abolished by Odoacer, King of the Heruli.</p> <p>The Eastern Empire long survived, and in the West a new Christian population was formed from the invading barbarian hordes. Christianity had at first kept aloof from the state, and the development which it experienced related to doctrine, internal organization, discipline, etc. But now it had become dominant : it was now a political power, a political motive. We now see Christianity under two forms : on the one side barbarian nations whose culture was yet to begin, who have to acquire the very rudiments of science, law, and polity ; on other side civilized peoples in possession of Greek science and a highly refined Oriental culture. Municipal legislation among them was complete – having reached the highest perfection through the labors of the great Roman jurisconsults ; so that the corpus juris compiled at the instance of the Emperor Justinian, still excites the admiration of the world. Here the Christian religion is placed in the midst of a developed civilization, which did not proceed from it. There, on the contrary, the process of culture has its very first step still to take, and that within the sphere of Christianity. These two empires, therefore, present a most remarkable contrast, in which we have before our eyes a grand example of the necessity of a people's having its culture developed in the spirit of the Christian religion. The history of the highly civilized Eastern Empire – where as we might suppose, the Spirit of Christianity could be taken up in its truth and purity – exhibits to us a millennial series of uninterrupted crimes, weaknesses, basenesses and want of principle ; a most repulsive and consequently a most uninteresting picture. It is evident here, how Christianity may be abstract, and how as such it is powerless, on account of its very purity and intrinsic spirituality. It may even be entirely separated from the World, as e.g. in Monasticism – which originated in Egypt. It is a common Concept and saying, in reference to the power of Religion, abstractly considered, over the hearts of men, that if Christian love were universel, private and political life would both be perfect, and the state of mankind would be thoroughly righteous and moral. Such representations may be a pious wish, but do not possess truth ; for religion is something internal, having to do with conscience alone. To it all the passions and desires are opposed, and in order that heart, will, intelligence may become true, they must be thoroughly educated ; Right must become Custom – Habit ; practical activity must be elevated to rational action ; the State must have a rational organ-ization, and then at length does the will of individuals become a truly righteous one. Light shining in darkness may perhaps give color, but not a picture animated by Spirit. The Byzantine Empire is a grand example of how the Christian religion may maintain an abstract character among a cultivated people, if the whole organization of the State and of the Laws is not reconstructed in harmony with its principle. At Byzantium Christianity had fallen into the hands of the dregs of the population – the lawless mob. Popular license on the one side and courtly baseness on the other side, take refuge under the sanction of religion, and degrade the latter to a disgusting object. In regard to religion, two interests obtained prominence : first, the settlement of doctrine ; and secondly, the appointment to ecclesiastical offices. The settlement of doctrine pertained to the Councils and Church authorities ; but the principle of Christianity is Freedom – subjective insight. These matters therefore, were special subjects of contention for the populace ; violent civil wars arose, and everywhere might be witnessed scenes of murder, conflagration and pillage, perpetrated in the cause of Christian dogmas. A famous schism e.g. occurred in reference to the dogma of the Trisagion. The words read : “Holy, Holy, Holy, is the Lord God of Zebaoth.” To this, one party, in honor of Christ, added – “who was crucified for us.” Another party rejected the addition, and sanguinary struggles ensued. In the contest on the question whether Christ were omoousios or omoiousios – that is of the same or of similar nature with God – the one letter i cost many thousands their lives. Especially notorious are the contentions about Images, in which it often happened, that the Emperor declared for the images and the Patriarch against, or conversely. Streams of blood flowed as the result. Gregory Nazianzen says somewhere : “This city (Constantinople) is full of handicraftsmen and slaves, who are all profound theologians, and preach in their workshops and in the streets. If you want a man to change a piece of silver, he instructs you in what consists the distinction between the Father and the Son : if you ask the price of a loaf of bread, you receive for answer – that the Son is inferior to the Father ; and if you ask, whether the bread is ready, the rejoinder is that the genesis of the Son was from Nothing.” The Idea of Spirit contained in this doctrine was thus treated in an utterly unspiritual manner. The appointment to the Patriarchate at Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria, and the jealousy and ambition of the Patriarchs likewise occasioned many intestine struggles. To all these religious contentions was added the interest in the gladiators and their combats, and in the parties of the blue and green color, which likewise occasioned the bloodiest encounters ; a sign of the most fearful degradation, as proving that all feeling for what is serious and elevated is lost, and that the delirium of religious passion is quite consistent with an appetite for gross and barbarous spectacles.</p> <p>The chief points in the Christian religion were at last, by degrees, established by the Councils. The Christians of the Byzantine Empire remained sunk in the dream of superstition – persisting in blind obedience to the Patriarchs and the priesthood. Image-Worship, to which we alluded above, occasioned the most violent struggles and storms. The brave Emperor Leo the Isaurian in particular, persecuted images with the greatest obstinacy, and in the year 754, Image-Worship was declared by a Council to be an invention of the devil. Nevertheless, in the year 787 the Empress Irene had it restored under the authority of a Nicene Council, and the Empress Theodora definitively established it – proceeding against its enemies with energetic rigor. The iconoclastic Patriarch received two hundred blows, the bishops trembled, the monks exulted, and the memory of this orthodox proceeding was celebrated by an annual ecclesiastical festival. The West, on the contrary, repudiated Image-Worship as late as the year 794, in the Council held at Frankfort ; and, though retaining the images, blamed most severely the superstition of the Greeks. Not till the later Middle Ages did Image-Worship meet with universel adoption as the result of quiet and slow advances.<br class='autobr' /> The Byzantine Empire was thus distracted by passions of all kinds within, and pressed by the barbarians – to whom the Emperors could offer but feeble resistance – without. The realm was in a condition of perpetual insecurity. Its general aspect presents a disgusting picture of imbecility ; wretched, nay, insane passions, stifle the growth of all that is noble in thoughts, deeds, and persons. Rebellion on the part of generals, depositions of the Emperors by their means or through the intrigues of the courtiers, assassination or poisoning of the Emperors by their own wives and sons, women surrendering themselves to lusts and abominations of all kinds – such are the scenes which History here brings before us ; till at last – about the middle of the fifteenth century (A.D. 1453) – the rotten edifice of the Eastern Empire crumbled in pieces before the might of the vigorous Turks.</p> <p>Part IV : The German World.</p> <p>The German Spirit is the Spirit of the new World. Its aim is the realization of absolute Truth as the unlimited self-determination of Freedom – that Freedom which has its own absolute form itself as its purport.[25] The destiny of the German peoples is, to be the bearers of the Christian principle. The principle of Spiritual Freedom – of Reconciliation [of the Objective and Subjective], was introduced into the still simple, unformed minds of those peoples ; and the part assigned them in the service of the World- Spirit was that of not merely possessing the Idea of Freedom as the substratum of their religious conceptions, but of producing it in free and spontaneous developments from their subjective self-consciousness. In entering on the task of dividing the German World into its natural periods, we must remark that we have not, as was the case in treating of the Greeks and Romans, a double external relation – backwards to an earlier World-Historical people, and forwards to a later one – to guide us. History shows that the process of development among the peoples now under consideration, was an altogether different one. The Greeks and Romans had reached maturity within, ere they directed their energies outwards. The Germans, on the contrary, began with self- diffusion – deluging the world, and overpowering in their course the inwardly rotten, hollow political fabrics of the civilized nations. Only then did their development begin, kindled by a foreign culture, a foreign religion, polity and legislation. The process of culture they underwent consisted in taking up foreign elements and reductively amalgamating them with their own national life. Thus their history presents an introversion – the attraction of alien forms of life and the bringing these to bear upon their own. In the Crusades, indeed, and in the discovery of America, the Western World directed its energies outwards. But it was not thus brought in contact with a World-Historical people that had preceded it ; it did not dispossess a principle that had previously governed the world. The relation to an extraneous principle here only accompanies [does not constitute] the history – does not bring with it essential changes in the nature of those conditions which characterize the peoples in question, but rather wears the aspect of internal evolution.[26] – The relation to other countries and periods is thus entirely different from that sustained by the Greeks and Romans. For the Christian world is the world of completion ; the grand principle of being is realized, consequently the end of days is fully come. The Idea can discover in Christianity no point in the aspirations of Spirit that is not satisfied. For its individual members, the Church is, it is true, a preparation for an eternal state as something future ; since the units who compose it, in their isolated and several capacity, occupy a position of particularity : but the Church has also the Spirit of God actually present in it, it forgives the sinner and is a present kingdom of heaven. Thus the Christian World has no absolute existence outside its sphere, but only a relative one which is already implicitly vanquished, and in respect to which its only concern is to make it apparent that this conquest has taken place. Hence it follows that an external reference ceases to be the characteristic element determining the epochs of the modern world. We have therefore to look for another principle of division.<br class='autobr' /> The German World took up the Roman culture and religion in their completed form. There was indeed a German and Northern religion, but it had by no means taken deep root in the soul ; Tacitus therefore calls the Germans : “Securi adversus Deos.” The Christian Religion which they adopted, had received from Councils and Fathers of the Church, who possessed the whole culture, and in particular, the philosophy of the Greek and Roman World, a perfected dogmatic system ; the Church, too, had a completely developed hierarchy. To the native tongue of the Germans, the Church likewise opposed one perfectly developed – the Latin. In art and philosophy a similar alien influence predominated. What of Alexandrian and of formal Aristotelian philosophy was still preserved in the writings of Boethius and elsewhere, became the fixed basis of speculative thought in the West for many centuries. The same principle holds in regard to the form of the secular sovereignty. Gothic and other chiefs gave themselves the name of Roman Patricians, and at a later date the Roman Empire was restored. Thus the German world appears, superficially, to be only a continuation of the Roman. But there lived in it an entirely new Spirit, through which the World was to be regenerated – the free Spirit, viz. which reposes on itself – the absolutely self-determination [Eigensinn] of subjectivity. To this self- involved subjectivity, the corresponding objectivity [Inhalt] stands opposed as absolutely alien. The distinction and antithesis which is evolved from these principles, is that of Church and State. On the one side, the Church develops itself, as the embodiment of absolute Truth ; for it is the consciousness of this truth, and at the same time the agency for rendering the Individual harmonious with it. On the other side stands secular consciousness, which, with its aims, occupies the world of Limitation – the State, based on Heart [emotional and thence social affections] or mutual confidence and subjectivity generally. European history is the exhibition of the growth of each of these principles severally, in Church and State ; then of an antithesis on the part of both – not only of the one to the other, but appearing within the sphere of each of these bodies themselves (since each of them is itself a totality) ; lastly, of the harmonizing of the antithesis. The three periods of this world will have to be treated accordingly.</p> <p>The first begins with the appearance of the German Nations in the Roman Empire – the incipient development of these peoples, converts to Christianity, and now established in the possession of the West. Their barbarous and simple character prevents this initial period from possessing any great interest. The Christian world then presents itself as “Christendom” – one mass, in which the Spiritual and the Secular form only different aspects. This epoch extends to Charlemagne.</p> <p>The second period develops the two sides of the antithesis to a logically consequential independence and opposition – the Church for itself as a Theocracy, and the State for itself as a Feudal Monarchy. Charlemagne had formed an alliance with the Holy See against the Lombards and the factions of the nobles in Rome. A union thus arose between the spiritual and the secular power, and a kingdom of heaven on earth promised to follow in the wake of this conciliation. But just at this time, instead of a spiritual kingdom of heaven, the inwardness of the Christian principle wears the appearance of being altogether directed outwards and leaving its proper sphere. Christian Freedom is perverted to its very opposite, both in a religious and secular respect ; on the one hand to the severest bondage, on the other hand to the most immoral excess – a barbarous intensity of every passion. In this period two aspects of society are to be especially noticed : the first is the formation of states – superior and inferior suzerainties exhibiting a regulated subordination, so that every relation becomes a firmly-fixed private right, excluding a sense of universelity. This regulated subordination appears in the Feudal System. The second aspect presents the antithesis of Church and State. This antithesis exists solely because the Church, to whose management the Spiritual was committed, itself sinks down into every kind of worldliness – a worldliness which appears only the more detestable, because all passions assume the sanction of religion.</p> <p>The time of Charles V's reign – i.e., the first half of the sixteenth century – forms the end of the second, and likewise the beginning of the third period. Secularity appears now as gaining a consciousness of its intrinsic worth – becomes aware of its having a value of its own in the morality, rectitude, probity and activity of man. The consciousness of independent validity is aroused through the restoration of Christian freedom. The Christian principle has now passed through the terrible discipline of culture, and it first attains truth and reality through the Reformation, This third period of the German World extends from the Reformation to our own times. The principle of Free Spirit is here made the banner of the World, and from this principle are evolved the universel axioms of Reason. Formal Thought – the Understanding – had been already developed ; but Thought received its true material first with the Reformation, through the reviviscent concrete consciousness of Free Spirit. From that epoch Thought began to gain a culture properly its own : principles were derived from it which were to be the norm for the constitution of the State. Political life was now to be consciously regulated by Reason. Customary morality, traditional usage lost its validity ; the various claims insisted upon, must prove their legitimacy as based on rational principles. Not till this era is the Freedom of Spirit realized. We may distinguish these periods as Kingdoms of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit.[27] The Kingdom of the Father is the consolidated, undistinguished mass, presenting a self-repeating cycle, mere change – like that sovereignty of Chronos engulfing his offspring. The Kingdom of the Son is the manifestation of God merely in a relation to secular existence – shining upon it as upon an alien object. The Kingdom of the Spirit is the harmonizing of the antithesis.</p> <p>These epochs may be also compared with the earlier empires. In the German aeon, as the realm of Totality, we see the distinct repetition of the earlier epochs.</p> <p>Charlemagne's time may be compared with the Persian Empire ; it is the period of substantial unity – this unity having its foundation in the inner man, the Heart, and both in the Spiritual and the Secular still abiding in its simplicity.</p> <p>To the Greek world and its merely ideal unity, the time preceding Charles V answers ; where real unity no longer exists, because all phases of particularity have become fixed in privileges and peculiar rights. As in the interior of the realms themselves, the different estates of the realm, with their several claims, are isolated, so do the various states in their foreign aspects occupy a merely external relation to each other. A diplomatic policy arises, which in the interest of a European balance of power, unites them with and against each other. It is the time in which the world becomes clear and manifest to itself (Discovery of America). So too does consciousness gain clearness in the supersensuous world and respecting it.</p> <p>Substantial objective religion brings itself to sensuous clearness in the sensuous element (Christian Art in the age of Pope Leo), and also becomes clear to itself in the element of inmost truth. We may compare this time with that of Pericles. The introversion of Spirit begins (Socrates – Luther), though Pericles is wanting in this epoch. Charles V possesses enormous possibilities in point of outward appliances, and appears absolute in his power ; but the inner spirit of Pericles, and therefore the absolute means of establishing a free sovereignty, are not in him. This is the epoch when Spirit becomes clear to itself in separations occurring in the realm of reality ; now the distinct elements of the German world manifest their essential nature.<br class='autobr' /> The third epoch may be compared with the Roman World. The unity of a universel principle is here quite as decidedly present, yet not as the unity of abstract universel sovereignty, but as the Hegemony of self-cognizant Thought. The authority of Rational Aim is acknowledged, and privileges and particularities melt away before the common object of the State. Peoples will the Right in and for itself ; regard is not had exclusively to particular conventions between nations, but principles enter into the considerations with which diplomacy is occupied. As little can Religion maintain itself apart from Thought, but either advances to the comprehension of the Idea, or, compelled by thought itself, becomes intensive belief – or lastly, from despair of finding itself at home in thought, flees back from it in pious horror, and becomes Superstition.<br class='autobr' /> Section I : The Elements of the Christian German World.</p> <p>Chapter I. The Barbarian Migrations.</p> <p>Respecting this first period, we have on the whole little to say, for it affords us comparatively slight materials for reflection. We will not follow the Germans back into their forests, nor investigate the origin of their migrations. Those forests of theirs have always passed for the abodes of free peoples, and Tacitus sketched his celebrated picture of Germany with a certain love and longing – contrasting it with the corruption and artificiality of that world to which he himself belonged. But we must not on this account regard such a state of barbarism as an exalted one, or fall into some such error as Rousseau's, who represents the condition of the American savages as one in which man is in possession of true freedom. Certainly there is an immense amount of misfortune and sorrow of which the savage knows nothing ; but this is a merely negative advantage, while freedom is essential positive. It is only the blessings conferred by affirmative freedom that are regarded as such in the highest grade of consciousness.</p> <p>Our first acquaintance with the Germans finds each individual enjoying an independent freedom ; and yet there is a certain community of feeling and interest, though not yet matured to a political condition. Next we see them inundating the Roman empire. It was partly the fertility of its domains, partly the necessity of seeking other habitations, that furnished the inciting cause. In spite of the wars in which they engage with the Romans, individuals, and even entire clans, enter their service as soldiers. Even so early as the battle of Pharsalia we find German cavalry united with the Roman forces of Caesar. In military service and intercourse with civilized peoples, they became acquainted with their advantages – advantages tending to the enjoyment and convenience of life, but also, and principally, those of mental cultivation. In the later emigrations, many nations – some entirely, others partially – remained behind in their original abodes.</p> <p>Accordingly, a distinction must be made between the German nations who remained in their ancient habitations and those who spread themselves over the Roman empire, and mingled with the conquered peoples. Since in their migratory expeditions the Germans attached themselves to their leaders of their own free choice, we find a peculiar duplicate condition of the great Teutonic families (Eastern and Western Goths ; Goths in all parts of the world and in their original country ; Scandinavians and Normans in Norway, but also appearing as knightly adventurers in the wide world). However different might be the fates of these peoples, they nevertheless had one aim in common – to procure themselves possessions, and to develop themselves in the direction of political organization. This process of growth is equally characteristic of all. In the West – in Spain and Portugal – the Suevi and Vandals are the first settlers, but are subdued and dispossessed by the Visigoths. A great Visigothic kingdom was established, to which Spain, Portugal, and a part of Southern France belonged. The second kingdom is that of the Franks – a name which, from the end of the second century, was given in common to the Istaevonian races between the Rhine and the Weser. They established themselves between the Moselle and the Scheldt, and under their leader, Clovis, pressed forward into Gaul as far as the Loire. He afterwards reduced the Franks on the Lower Rhine, and the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine ; his sons subjugated the Thuringians and Burgundians. The third kingdom is that of the Ostrogoths in Italy, founded by Theodoric, and highly nourishing beneath his rule. The learned Romans Cassiodorus and Boëthius filled the highest offices of state under Theodoric. But this Ostrogothic kingdom did not last long ; it was destroyed by the Byzantines under Belisarius and Narses. In the second half (568) of the sixth century, the Lombards invaded Italy and ruled for two centuries, till this kingdom also was subjected to the Frank sceptre by Charlemagne. At a later date, the Normans also established themselves in Lower Italy. Our attention is next claimed by the Burgundians, who were subjugated by the Franks, and whose kingdom forms a kind of partition wall between France and Germany. The Angles and Saxons entered Britain and reduced it under their sway. Subsequently, the Normans make their appearance here also. These countries – previously a part of the Roman empire – thus experienced the fate of subjugation by the Barbarians. In the first instance, a great contrast presented itself between the already civilized inhabitants of those countries and the victors ; but this contrast terminated in the hybrid character of the new nations that were now formed. The whole mental and moral existence of such states exhibits a divided aspect ; in their inmost being we have characteristics that point to an alien origin. This distinction strikes us even on the surface, in their language, which is an intermixture of the ancient Roman – already united with the vernacular – and the German. We may class these nations together as Romanic – comprehending thereby Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France. Contrasted with these stand three others, more or less German- speaking nations, which have maintained a consistent tone of uninterrupted fidelity to native character – Germany itself, Scandinavia, and England. The last was, indeed, incorporated in the Roman empire, but was affected by Roman culture little more than superficially – like Germany itself – and was again Germanized by Angles and Saxons. Germany Proper kept itself pure from any admixture ; only the southern and western border – on the Danube and the Rhine – had been subjugated by the Romans. The portion between the Rhine and the Elbe remained thoroughly national. This part of Germany was inhabited by several tribes. Besides the Ripuarian Franks and those established by Clovis in the districts of the Maine, four leading tribes – the Alemanni, the Boioarians, the Thuringians, and the Saxons – must be mentioned. The Scandinavians retained in their fatherland a similar purity from intermixture ; and also made themselves celebrated by their expeditions, under the name of Normans. They extended their chivalric enterprises over almost all parts of Europe. Part of them went to Russia, and there became the founders of the Russian Empire ; part settled in Northern France and Britain ; another established principalities in Lower Italy and Sicily. Thus a part of the Scandinavians founded states in foreign lands, another maintained its nationality by the ancestral hearth.</p> <p>We find, moreover, in the East of Europe, the great Sclavonic nation, whose settlements extended west of the Elbe to the Danube. The Magyars (Hungarians) settled in between them. In Moldavia, Wallachia and northern Greece appear the Bulgarians, Servians, and Albanians, likewise of Asiatic origin – left behind as broken barbarian remains in the shocks and counter- shocks of the advancing hordes. These people did, indeed, found kingdoms and sustain spirited conflicts with the various nations that came across their path. Sometimes, as an advanced guard – an intermediate nationality – they took part in the struggle between Christian Europe and unchristian Asia. The Poles even liberated beleaguered Vienna from the Turks ; and the Sclaves have to some extent been drawn within the sphere of Occidental Reason. Yet this entire body of peoples remains excluded from our consideration, because hitherto it has not appeared as an independent element in the series of phases that Reason has assumed in the World. Whether it will do so hereafter, is a question that does not concern us here ; for in History we have to do with the Past.</p> <p>The German Nation was characterized by the sense of Natural Totality – an idiosyncrasy which we may call Heart [Gemüth].[28] “Heart” is that undeveloped, indeterminate totality of Spirit, in reference to the Will, in which satisfaction of soul is attained in a correspondingly general and indeterminate way. Character is a particular form of will and interest asserting itself ; but the quality in question [Gemüthlichkeit] has no particular aim – riches, honor, or the like ; in fact does not concern itself with any objective condition [a “position in the world” in virtue of wealth, dignity, etc.] but with the entire condition of the soul – a general sense of enjoyment. Will in the case of such an idiosyncrasy is exclusively formal Will[29] – its purely subjective Freedom exhibits itself as self-will. To the disposition thus designated, every particular object of attraction seems important, for “Heart” surrenders itself entirely to each ; but as, on the other hand, it is not interested in the quality of such aim in the abstract, it does not become exclusively absorbed in that aim, so as to pursue it with violent and evil passion – does not go the length of abstract vice. In the idiosyncrasy we term “Heart,” no such absorption of interest presents itself ; it wears, on the whole, the appearance of “well-meaning.” Character is its direct opposite.[30] This is the abstract principle innate in the German peoples, and that subjective side which they present to the objective in Christianity. “Heart” has no particular object ; in Christianity we have the Absolute Object [i.e., it is concerned with the entire range of Truth] – all that can engage and occupy human subjectivity. Now it is the desire of satisfaction without further definition or restriction, that is involved in “Heart” ; and it is exactly that for which we found an appropriate application in the principle of Christianity. The Indefinite as Substance, in objectivity, is the purely Universel – God ; while the reception of the individual will to a participation in His favor, is the complementary element in the Christian concrete Unity. The absolutely Universel is that which contains in it all determinations, and in virtue of this is itself indeterminate. Subject [individual personality] is the absolutely determinate ; and these two are identical.[31] This was exhibited above as the material content [Inhalt] in Christianity ; here we find it subjectively as “Heart.” Subject [Personality] must then also gain an objective form, that is, be expanded to an object. It is necessary that for the indefinite susceptibilty which we designate “Heart,” the Absolute also should assume the form of an Object, in order that man on his part may attain a consciousness of his unity with that object. But this recognition of the Absolute [in Christ] requires the purification of man's subjectivity – requires it to become a real, concrete self, a sharer in general interests as a denizen of the world at large, and that it should act in accordance with large and liberal aims, recognize Law, and find satisfaction in it. – Thus we find here two principles corresponding the one with the other, and recognize the adaptation of the German peoples to be, as we stated above, the bearers of the higher principle of Spirit.<br class='autobr' /> We advance then to the consideration of the German principle in its primary phase of existence, i.e. the earliest historical condition of the German nations. Their quality of “Heart” is in its first appearance quite abstract, undeveloped and destitute of any particular object ; for substantial aims are not involved in “Heart” itself. Where this susceptibilty stands alone, it appears as a want of character – mere inanity. “Heart” as purely abstract, is dulness ; thus we see in the original condition of the Germans a barbarian dulness, mental confusion and vagueness. Of the Religion of the Germans we know little. – The Druids belonged to Gaul and were extirpated by the Romans. There was indeed, a peculiar northern mythology ; but how slight a hold the religion of the Germans had upon their hearts, has been already remarked, and it is also evident from the fact that the Germans were easily converted to Christianity. The Saxons, it is true, offered considerable resistance to Charlemagne ; but this was directed, not so much against the religion he brought with him, as against oppression itself. Their religion had no profundity ; and the same may be said of their ideas of law. Murder was not regarded and punished as a crime : it was expiated by a pecuniary fine. This indicates a deficiency in depth of sentiment – that absence of a power of abstraction and discrimination that marks their peculiar temperament [Nichtentzweitseyn des Gemuthes] – a temperament which leads them to regard it only as an injury to the community when one of its members is killed, and nothing further. The blood- revenge of the Arabs is based on the feeling that the honor of the Family is injured. Among the Germans the community had no dominion over the individual, for the element of freedom is the first consideration in their union in a social relationship. The ancient Germans were famed for their love of freedom ; the Romans formed a correct idea of them in this particular from the first. Freedom has been the watchword in Germany down to the most recent times, and even the league of princes under Frederick II had its origin in the love of liberty. This element of freedom, in passing over to a social relationship, can establish only popular communities ; so that these communities constitute the whole state, and every member of the community, as such, is a free man. Homicide could be expiated by a pecuniary mulct, because the individuality of the free man was regarded as sacred – permanently and inviolably – whatever he might have done. The community or its presiding power, with the assistance of members of the community, delivered judgment in affairs of private right, with a view to the protection of person and property. For affairs affecting the body politic at large – for wars and similar contingencies – the whole community had to be consulted. The second point to be observed is, that social nuclei were formed by free confederation, and by voluntary attachment to military leaders and princes. The connection in this case was that of Fidelity ; for Fidelity is the second watchword of the Germans, as Freedom was the first. Individuals attach themselves with free choice to an individual, and without external prompting make this relation an inviolable one. This we find neither among the Greeks nor the Romans. The relation of Agamemnon and the princes who accompanied him was not that of feudal suit and service : it was a free association merely for a particular purpose – a Hegemony. But the German confederations have their being not in a relation to a mere external aim or cause, but in a relation to the spiritual self – the subjective inmost personality. Heart, disposition, the concrete subjectivity in its integrity, which does not attach itself to any abstract bearing of an object, but regards the whole of it as a condition of attachment – making itself dependent on the person and the cause – renders this relation a compound of fidelity to a person and obedience to a principle.</p> <p>The union of the two relations – of individual freedom in the community, and of the bond implied in association – is the main point in the formation of the State. In this, duties and rights are no longer left to arbitrary choice, but are determined as fixed relations ; – involving, moreover, the condition that the State be the soul of the entire body, and remain its sovereign – that from it should be derived particular aims and the authorization both of political acts and political agents – the generic character and interests of the community constituting the permanent basis of the whole. But here we have the peculiarity of the German states, that contrary to the view thus presented, social relations do not assume the character of general definitions and laws, but are entirely split up into private rights and private obligations. They perhaps exhibit a social or communal mould or stamp, but nothing universel ; the laws are absolutely particular, and the Rights are Privileges. Thus the state was a patchwork of private rights, and a rational political life was the tardy issue of wearisome struggles and convulsions.<br class='autobr' /> We have said, that the Germans were predestined to be the bearers of the Christian principle, and to carry out the Idea as the absolutely Rational aim. In the first instance we have only vague volition, in the background of which lies the True and Infinite. The True is present only as an unsolved problem, for their Soul is not yet purified. A long process is required to complete this purification so as to realize concrete Spirit. Religion comes forward with a challenge to the violence of the passions, and rouses them to madness. The excess of passions is aggravated by evil conscience, and heightened to an insane rage ; which perhaps would not have been the case, had that opposition been absent. We behold the terrible spectacle of the most fearful extravagance of passion in all the royal houses of that period. Clovis, the founder of the Frank Monarchy, is stained with the blackest crimes. Barbarous harshness and cruelty characterize all the succeeding Merovingians ; the same spectacle is repeated in the Thuringian and other royal houses. The Christian principle is certainly the problem implicit in their souls ; but these are primarily still crude. The Will – potentially true – mistakes itself, and separates itself from the true and proper aim by particular, limited aims. Yet it is in this struggle with itself and contrariety to its bias, that it realizes its wishes ; it contends against the object which it really desires, and thus accomplishes it ; for implicitly, potentially, it is reconciled. The Spirit of God lives in the Church ; it is the inward impelling Spirit. But it is in the World that Spirit is to be realized – in a material not yet brought into harmony with it. Now this material is the Subjective Will, which thus has a contradiction in itself. On the religious side, we often observe a change of this kind : a man who has all his life been fighting and hewing his way – who with all vehemence of character and passion, has struggled and revelled in secular occupations – on a sudden repudiates it all, to betake himself to religious seclusion. But in the World, secular business cannot be thus repudiated ; it demands accomplishment, and ultimately the discovery is made, that Spirit finds the goal of its struggle and its harmonization, in that very sphere which it made the object of its resistance – it finds that secular pursuits are a spiritual occupation.</p> <p>We thus observe, that individuals and peoples regard that which is their misfortune, as their greatest happiness, and conversely, struggle against their happiness as their greatest misery. La vérité, en la repoussant, on I'embrasse. Europe comes to the truth while, and to the degree in which, she has repulsed it. It is in the agitation thus occasioned, that Providence especially exercises its sovereignty ; realizing its absolute aim – its honor – as the result of unhappiness, sorrow, private aims and the unconscious will of the nations of the earth.</p> <p>While, therefore, in the West this long process in the world's history – necessary to that purification by which Spirit in the concrete is realized – is commencing, the purification requisite for developing Spirit in the abstract which we observe carried on contemporaneously in the East, is more quickly accomplished. The latter does not need a long process, and we see it produced rapidly, even suddenly, in the first half of the seventh century, in Mahometanism.</p> <p>Chapter II Mohametanism.</p> <p>On the one hand we see the European world forming itself anew – the nations taking firm root there, to produce a world of free reality expanded and developed in every direction. We behold them beginning their work by bringing all social relations under the form of particularity – with dull and narrow intelligence splitting that which in its nature is generic and normal, into a multitude of chance contingencies ; rendering that which ought to be simple principle and law, a tangled web of convention, In short, while the West began to shelter itself in a political edifice of chance, entanglement and particularity, the very opposite direction necessarily made its appearance in the world, to produce the balance of the totality of spiritual manifestation. This took place in the Revolution of the East, which destroyed all particularity and dependence, and perfectly cleared up and purified the soul and disposition ; making the abstract One the absolute object of attention and devotion, and to the same extent, pure subjective consciousness – the Knowledge of this One alone – the only aim of reality ; – making the Unconditioned [das Verhältnisslose] the condition [Verhält-niss] of existence.<br class='autobr' /> We have already become acquainted with the nature of the Oriental principle, and seen that its Highest Being is only negative ; – that with it the positive imports an abandonment to mere nature – the enslavement of Spirit to the world of realities, Only among the Jews have we observed the principle of pure Unity elevated to a thought ; for only among them was adoration paid to the One, as an object of thought. This unity then remained, when the purification of the mind to the conception of abstract Spirit had been accomplished ; but it was freed from the particularity by which the worship of Jehovah had been hampered. Jehovah was only the God of that one people – the God of Abraham, of Isaac and Jacob : only with the Jews had this God made a covenant ; only to this people had he revealed himself. That speciality of relation was done away with in Mahometanism. In this spiritual universelity, in this unlimited and indefinite purity and simplicity of conception, human personality has no other aim than the realization of this universelity and simplicity. Allah has not the affirmative, limited aim of the Judaic God. The worship of the One is the only final aim of Mahometanism, and subjectivity has this worship for the sole occupation of its activity, combined with the design to subjugate secular existence to the One. This One has indeed, the quality of Spirit ; yet because subjectivity suffers itself to be absorbed in the object, this One is deprived of every concrete predicate ; so that neither does subjectivity become on its part spiritually free, nor on the other hand is the object of its veneration concrete. But Mahometanism is not the Hindoo, not the Monastic immersion in the Absolute. Subjectivity is here living and unlimited – an energy which enters into secular life with a purely negative purpose, and busies itself and interferes with the world, only in such a way as shall promote the pure adoration of the One. The object of Mahometan worship is purely intellectual ; no image, no representation of Allah is tolerated. Mahomet is a prophet but still man – not elevated above human weaknesses. The leading features of Mahometanism involve this – that in actual existence nothing can become fixed, but that everything is destined to expand itself in activity and life in the boundless amplitude of the world, so that the worship of the One remains the only bond by which the whole is capable of uniting. In this expansion, this active energy, all limits, all national and caste distinctions vanish ; no particular race, political claim of birth or possession is regarded – only man as a believer. To adore the One, to believe in him, to fast – to remove the sense of speciality and consequent separation from the Infinite, arising from corporeal limitation – and to give alms – that is, to get rid of particular private possession – these are the essence of Mahometan injunctions ; but the highest meed is to die for the Faith. He who perishes for it in battle is sure of Paradise.</p> <p>The Mahometan religion originated among the Arabs. Here Spirit exists in its simplest form, and the sense of the Formless has its especial abode ; for in their deserts nothing can be brought into a firm consistent shape. The flight of Mahomet from Mecca in the year 622 is the Moslem era. Even during his life, and under his own leadership, but especially by following up his designs after his death under the guidance of his successors, the Arabs achieved their vast conquests. They first came down upon Syria and conquered its capital Damascus in the year 634. They then passed the Euphrates and Tigris and turned their arms against Persia, which soon submitted to them. In the West they conquered Egypt, Northern Africa and Spain, and pressed into Southern France as far as the Loire, where they were defeated by Charles Martel near Tours, A.D. 732. Thus the dominion of the Arabs extended itself in the West. In the East they reduced successively Persia, as already stated, Samarkand, and the Southwestern part of Asia Minor. These conquests, as also the spread of their religion, took place with extraordinary rapidity. Whoever became a convert to Islam gained a perfect equality of rights with all Mussulmans. Those who rejected it, were, during the earliest period, slaughtered. Subsequently, however, the Arabs behaved more leniently to the conquered ; so that if they were unwilling to go over to Islam, they were only required to pay an annual poll-tax. The towns that immediately submitted, were obliged to pay the victor a tithe of all their possessions ; those which had to be captured, a fifth.</p> <p>Abstraction swayed the minds of the Mahometans. Their object was, to establish an abstract worship, and they struggled for its accomplishment with the greatest enthusiasm. This enthusiasm was Fanaticism, that is, an enthusiasm for something abstract – for an abstract thought which sustains a negative position towards the established order of things. It is the essence of fanaticism to bear only a desolating destructive relation to the concrete ; but that of Mahometanism was, at the same time, capable of the greatest elevation – an elevation free from all petty interests, and united with all the virtues that appertain to magnanimity and valor. La religion et la terreur were the principles in this case, as with Robespierre la liberté et la terreur. But real life is nevertheless concrete, and introduces particular aims ; conquest leads to sovereignty and wealth, to the conferring of prerogatives on a dynastic family, and to a union of individuals. But all this is only contingent and built on sand ; it is to-day, and to-morrow is not. With all the passionate interest he shows, the Mahometan is really indifferent to this social fabric, and rushes on in the ceaseless whirl of fortune. In its spread Mahometanism founded many kingdoms and dynasties. On this boundless sea there is a continual onward movement ; nothing abides firm. Whatever curls up into a form remains all the while transparent, and in that very instant glides away. Those dynasties were destitute of the bond of an organic firmness : the kingdoms, therefore, did nothing but degenerate ; the individuals that composed them simply vanished. Where, however, a noble soul makes itself prominent – like a billow in the surging of the sea – it manifests itself in a majesty of freedom, such that nothing more noble, more generous, more valiant, more devoted was ever witnessed. The particular determinate object which the individual embraces is grasped by him entirely – with the whole soul. While Europeans are involved in a multitude of relations, and form, so to speak, “a bundle” of them – in Mahometanism the individual is one passion and that alone ; he is superlatively cruel, cunning, bold, or generous. Where the sentiment of love exists, there is an equal abandon – love the most fervid. The ruler who loves the slave, glorifies the object of his love by laying at his feet all his magnificence, power and honor – forgetting sceptre and throne for him ; but on the other hand he will sacrifice him just as recklessly. This reckless fervor shows itself also in the glowing warmth of the Arab and Saracen poetry. That glow is the perfect freedom of fancy from every fetter – an absorption in the life of its object and the sentiment it inspires, so that selfishness and egotism are utterly banished.</p> <p>Never has enthusiasm, as such, performed greater deeds. Individuals may be enthusiastic for what is noble and exalted in various particular forms. The enthusiasm of a people for its independence, has also a definite aim. But abstract and therefore all-comprehensive enthusiasm – restrained by nothing, finding its limits nowhere, and absolutely indifferent to all beside – is that of the Mahometan East.</p> <p>Proportioned to the rapidity of the Arab conquests, was the speed with which the arts and sciences attained among them their highest bloom. At first we see the conquerors destroying everything connected with art and science. Omar is said to have caused the destruction of the noble Alexandrian library. “These books,” said he, “either contain what is in the Koran, or something else : in either case they are superfluous.” But soon afterwards the Arabs became zealous in promoting the arts and spreading them everywhere. Their empire reached the summit of its glory under the Caliphs Al-Mansor and Haroun Al-Raschid. Large cities arose in all parts of the empire, where commerce and manufactures flourished, splendid palaces were built, and schools created. The learned men of the empire assembled at the Caliph's court, which not merely shone outwardly with the pomp of the costliest jewels, furniture and palaces, but was resplendent with the glory of poetry and all the sciences. At first the Caliphs still maintained entire that simplicity and plainness which characterized the Arabs of the desert, (the Caliph Abubeker is particularly famous in this respect,) and which acknowledged no distinction of station and culture. The meanest Saracen, the most insignificant old Woman, approached the Caliph as an equal. Unreflecting naivete does not stand in need of culture ; and in virtue of the freedom of his Spirit, each one sustains a relation of equality to the ruler.<br class='autobr' /> The great empire of the Caliphs did not last long : for on the basis presented by Universelity nothing is firm. The great Arabian empire fell about the same time as that of the Franks : thrones were demolished by slaves and by fresh invading hordes – the Seljuks and Mongols – and new kingdoms founded, new dynasties raised to the throne. The Osman race at last succeeded in establishing a firm dominion, by forming for themselves a firm centre in the Janizaries. Fanaticism having cooled down, no moral principle remained in men's souls. In the struggle with the Saracens, European valor had idealized itself to a fair and noble chivalry. Science and knowledge, especially that of philosophy, came from the Arabs into the West. A noble poetry and free imagination were kindled among the Germans by the East – a fact which directed Goethe's attention to the Orient and occasioned the composition of a string of lyric pearls, in his “Divan,” which in warmth and felicity of fancy cannot be surpassed. But the East itself, when by degrees enthusiasm had vanished, sank into the grossest vice. The most hideous passions became dominant, and as sensual enjoyment was sanctioned in the first form which Mahometan doctrine assumed, and was exhibited as a reward of the faithful in Paradise, it took the place of fanaticism. At present, driven back into its Asiatic and African quarters, and tolerated only in one corner of Europe through the jealousy of Christian Powers, Islam has long vanished from the stage of history at large, and has retreated into Oriental ease and repose.<br class='autobr' /> Chapter III. The Empire of Charlemagne.<br class='autobr' /> The empire of the Franks, as already stated, was founded by Clovis. After his death, it was divided among his sons. Subsequently, after many struggles and the employment of treachery, assassination and violence, it was again united, and once more divided. Internally the power of the kings was very much increased, by their having become princes in conquered lands. These were indeed parcelled out among the Frank freemen ; but very considerable permanent revenues accrued to the king, together with what had belonged to the emperors, and the spoils of confiscation. These therefore the king bestowed as personal, i.e. not heritable, beneficia, on his warriors, who in receiving them entered into a personal obligation to him – became his vassals and formed his feudal array. The very opulent Bishops were united with them in constituting the King's Council, which however did not circumscribe the royal authority. At the head of the feudal array was the Major Domus. These Majores Domus soon assumed the entire power and threw the royal authority into the shade, while the kings sank into a torpid condition and became mere puppets. From the former sprang the dynasty of the Carlovingians. Pepin le Bref, the son of Charles Martel, was in the year 752 raised to the dignity of King of the Franks. Pope Zacharias released the Franks from their oath of allegiance to the still living Childeric III – the last of the Merovingians – who received the tonsure, i.e. became a monk, and was thus deprived of the royal distinction of long hair. The last of the Merovingians were utter weaklings, who contented themselves with the name of royalty, and gave themselves up almost entirely to luxury – a phenomenon that is quite common in the dynasties of the East, and is also met with again among the last of the Carlovingians. The Majores Domus, on the contrary, were in the very vigor of ascendant fortunes, and were in such close alliance with the feudal nobility, that it became easy for them ultimately to secure the throne.</p> <p>The Popes were most severely pressed by the Lombard kings and sought protection from the Franks. Out of gratitude Pepin undertook to defend Stephen II. He led an army twice across the Alps, and twice defeated the Lombards. His victories gave splendor to his newly established throne, and entailed a considerable heritage on the Chair of St. Peter. In A.D. 800 the son of Pepin – Charlemagne – was crowned Emperor by the Pope, and hence originated the firm union of the Carlovingians with the Papal See. For the Roman Empire continued to enjoy among the barbarians the prestige of a great power, and was ever regarded by them as the centre from which civil dignities, religion, laws and all branches of knowledge – beginning with written characters themselves – flowed to them. Charles Martel, after he had delivered Europe from Saracen domination, was – himself and his successors – dignified with the title of “Patrician” by the people and senate of Rome ; but Charlemagne was crowned Emperor, and that by the Pope himself. There were now, therefore, two Empires, and in them the Christian confession was gradually divided into two Churches, the Greek and the Roman. The Roman Emperor was the born defender of the Roman Church, and this position of the Emperor towards the Pope seemed to declare that the Frank sovereignty was only a continuation of the Roman Empire. The Empire of Charlemagne had a very considerable extent. Franconia Proper stretched from the Rhine to the Loire. Aquitania, south of the Loire, was in 768 – the year of Pepin's death – entirely subjugated. The Frank Empire also included Burgundy, Alemannia (southern Germany between the Lech, the Maine and the Rhine), Thuringia, which extended to the Saale, and Bavaria. Charlemagne likewise conquered the Saxons, who dwelt between the Rhine and the Weser, and put an end to the Lombard dominion, so that he became master of Upper and Central Italy.</p> <p>This great empire Charlemagne formed into a systematically organized State, and gave the Frank dominion settled institutions adapted to impart to it strength and consistency. This must however not be understood, as if he first introduced the Constitution of his empire in its whole extent, but as implying that institutions partly already in existence, were developed under his guidance, and attained a more decided and unobstructed efficiency. The King stood at the head of the officers of the empire, and the principle of hereditary monarchy was already recognized. The King was likewise master of the armed force, as also the largest landed proprietor, while the supreme judicial power was equally in his hands. The military constitution was based on the “arrière- ban.” Every freeman was bound to arm for the defence of the realm, and had to provide for his support in the field for a certain time. This militia (as it would now be called) was under the command of Counts and Margraves, which latter presided over large districts on the borders of the empire – the “Marches.” According to the general partition of the country, it was divided into provinces [or counties], over each of which a Count presided. Over them again, under the later Carlovingians, were Dukes, whose seats were large cities, such as Cologne, Ratisbon, and the like. Their office gave occasion to the division of the country into Duchies : thus there was a Duchy of Alsatia, Lorraine, Frisia, Thuringia, Rhaetia. These Dukes were appointed by the Emperor. Peoples that had retained their hereditary princes after their subjugation, lost this privilege and received Dukes, when they revolted ; this was the case with Alemannia, Thuringia, Bavaria, and Saxony. But there was also a kind of standing army for readier use. The vassals of the emperor, namely, had the enjoyment of estates on the condition of performing military service, whenever commanded. And with a view to maintain these arrangements, commissioners (Missi) were sent out by the emperor, to observe and report concerning the affairs of the Empire, and to inquire into the state of judicial administration and inspect the royal estates.</p> <p>Not less remarkable is the management of the revenues of the state. There were no direct taxes, and few tolls on rivers and roads, of which several were farmed out to the higher officers of the empire. Into the treasury flowed on the one hand judicial fines, on the other hand the pecuniary satisfactions made for not serving in the army at the emperor's summons. Those who enjoyed beneficia, lost them on neglecting this duty. The chief revenue was derived from the crown- lands, of which the emperor had a great number, on which royal palaces [Pfalzen] were erected. It had been long the custom for the kings to make progresses through the chief provinces, and to remain for a time in each palatinate ; the due preparations for the maintenance of the court having been already made by Marshals, Chamberlains, etc.</p> <p>As regards the administration of justice, criminal causes and those which concern real property were tried before the communal assemblies under the presidency of a Count. Those of less importance were decided by at least seven free men – an elective bench of magistrates – under the presidency of the Centgraves. The supreme jurisdiction belonged to the royal tribunals, over which the king presided in his palace : to these the feudatories, spiritual and temporal, were amenable. The royal commissioners mentioned above gave especial attention in their inquisitorial visits to the judicial administration, heard all complaints, and punished injustice. A spiritual and a temporal envoy had to go their circuit four times a year.</p> <p>In Charlemagne's time the ecclesiastical body had already acquired great weight. The bishops presided over great cathedral establishments, with which were also connected seminaries and scholastic institutions. For Charlemagne endeavored to restore science, then almost extinct, by promoting the foundation of schools in towns and villages. Pious souls believed that they were doing a good work and earning salvation by making presents to the church ; in this way the most savage and barbarous monarchs sought to atone for their crimes. Private persons most commonly made their offerings in the form of a bequest of their entire estate to religious houses, stipulating for the enjoyment of the usufruct only for life or for a specified time. But it often happened that on the death of a bishop or abbot, the temporal magnates and their retainers invaded the possessions of the clergy, and fed and feasted there till all was consumed ; for religion had not yet such an authority over men's minds as to be able to bridle the rapacity of the powerful. The clergy were obliged to appoint stewards and bailiffs to manage their estates ; besides this, guardians had charge of all their secular concerns, led their men-at-arms into the field, and gradually obtained from the king territorial jurisdiction, when the ecclesiastics had secured the privilege of being amenable only to their own tribunals, and enjoyed immunity from the authority of the royal officers of justice (the Counts). This involved an important step in the change of political relations, inasmuch as the ecclesiastical domains assumed more and more the aspect of independent provinces enjoying a freedom surpassing anything to which those of secular princes had yet made pretensions. Moreover the clergy contrived subsequently to free themselves from the burdens of the state, and opened the churches and monasteries as asylums – that is, inviolable sanctuaries for all offenders. This institution was on the one hand very beneficial as a protection in cases of violence and oppression ; but it was perverted on the other hand into a means of impunity for the grossest crimes. In Charlemagne's time, the law could still demand from conventual authorities the surrender of offenders. The bishops were tried by a judicial bench consisting of bishops ; as vassals they were properly subject to the royal tribunal. Afterwards the monastic establishments sought to free themselves from episcopal jurisdiction also : and thus they made themselves independent even of the church. The bishops were chosen by the clergy and the religious communities at large ; but as they were also vassals of the sovereign, their feudal dignity had to be conferred by him. The contingency of a contest was avoided by the obligation to choose a person approved of by the king.</p> <p>The imperial tribunals were held in the palace where the emperor resided. The sovereign himself presided in them, and the magnates of the imperial court constituted with him the supreme judicial body. The deliberations of the imperial council on the affairs of the empire did not take place at appointed times, but as occasions offered – at military reviews in the spring, at ecclesiastical councils and on court-days. It was especially these court-days, to which the feudal nobles were invited – when the king held his court in a particular province, generally on the Rhine, the centre of the Frank empire – that gave occasion to the deliberations in question. Custom required the sovereign to assemble twice a year a select body of the higher temporal and ecclesiastical functionaries, but here also the king had decisive power. These conventions are therefore of a different character from the Imperial Diets of later times, in which the nobles assume a more independent position.<br class='autobr' /> Such was the state of the Frank Empire – that first consolidation of Christianity into a political form proceeding from itself, the Roman empire having been swallowed up by Christianity. The constitution just described looks excellent ; it introduced a firm military organization and provided for the administration of justice within the empire. Yet after Charlemagne's death it proved itself utterly powerless – externally defenceless against the invasions of the Normans, Hungarians, and Arabs, and internally inefficient in resisting lawlessness, spoliation, and oppression of every kind. Thus we see, side by side with an excellent constitution, the most deplorable condition of things, and therefore confusion in all directions. Such political edifices need, for the very reason that they originate suddenly, the additional strengthening afforded by negativity evolved within themselves : they need reactions in every form, such as manifest themselves in the following period.</p> <p>Section II : The Middle Ages</p> <p>While the first period of the German World ends brilliantly with a mighty empire, the second is commenced by the reaction resulting from the antithesis occasioned by that infinite falsehood which rules the destinies of the Middle Ages and constitutes their life and spirit. This reaction is first, that of the particular nationalities against the universel sovereignty of the Frank empire – manifesting itself in the splitting up of that great empire. The second reaction is that of individuals against legal authority and the executive power – against subordination, and the military and judicial arrangements of the constitution. This produced the isolation and therefore defencelessness of individuals. The universelity of the power of the state disappeared through this reaction : individuals sought protection with the powerful, and the latter became oppressors. Thus was gradually introduced a condition of universel dependence, and this protecting relation is then systematized into the Feudal System. The third reaction is that of the church – the reaction of the spiritual element against the existing order of things. Secular extravagances of passion were repressed and kept in check by the Church, but the latter was itself secularized in the process, and abandoned its proper position. From that moment begins the introversion of the secular principle. These relations and reactions all go to constitute the history of the Middle Ages, and the culminating point of this period is the Crusades ; for with them arises a universel instability, but one through which the states of Christendom first attain internal and external independence.<br class='autobr' /> Chapter I. The Feudality and the Hierarchy.<br class='autobr' /> The First Reaction is that of particular nationality against the universel sovereignty of the Franks. It appears indeed, at first sight, as if the Frank empire was divided by the mere choice of its sovereigns ; but another consideration deserves attention, vis. that this division was popular, and was accordingly maintained by the peoples. It was, therefore, not a mere dynastic act – which might appear unwise, since the princes thereby weakened their own power – but a restoration of those distinct nationalities which had been held together by a connecting bond of irresistible might and the genius of a great man. Louis the Pious [le Débonnaire] son of Charlemagne, divided the empire among his three sons. But subsequently, by a second marriage, another son was born to him – Charles the Bald. As he wished to give him also an inheritance, wars and contentions arose between Louis and his other sons, whose already received portion would have to be diminished by such an arrangement. In the first instance, therefore, a private interest was involved in the contest ; but that of the nations which composed the empire made the issue not indifferent to them. The western Franks had already identified themselves with the Gauls, and with them originated a reaction against the German Franks, as also at a later epoch one on the part of Italy against the Germans. By the treaty of Verdun, A.D. 843, a division of the empire among Charlemagne's descendants took place ; the whole Frank empire, some provinces excepted, was for a moment again united under Charles the Gross. It was, however, only for a short time that this weak prince was able to hold the vast empire together ; it was broken up into many smaller sovereignties, which developed and maintined an independent position. These were the Kingdom of Italy, which was itself divided, the two Burgundian sovereignties – Upper Burgundy, of which the chief centres were Geneva and the convent of St. Maurice in Valaise, and Lower Burgundy between the Jura, the Mediterranean and the Rhone – Lorraine, between the Rhine and the Meuse, Normandy, and Brittany. France Proper was shut in between these sovereignties ; and thus limited did Hugh Capet find it when he ascended the throne. Eastern Franconia, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria, Swabia, remained parts of the German Empire. Thus did the unity of the Frank monarchy fall to pieces. The internal arrangements of the Frank empire also suffered a gradual but total decay ; and the first to disappear was the military organization. Soon after Charlemagne we see the Norsemen from various quarters making inroads into England, France and Germany. In England seven dynasties of Anglo-Saxon Kings were originally established, but in the year 827 Egbert united these sovereignties into a single kingdom. In the reign of his successor the Danes made very frequent invasions and pillaged the country. In Alfred the Great's time they met with vigorous resistance, but subsequently the Danish King Canute conquered all England. The inroads of the Normans into France were contemporaneous with these events. They sailed up the Seine and the Loire in light boats, plundered the towns, pillaged the convents, and went off with their booty. They beleaguered Paris itself, and the Carlovingian Kings were reduced to the base necessity of purchasing a peace. In the same way they devastated the towns lying on the Elbe ; and from the Rhine plundered Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne, and made Lorraine tributary to them. The Diet of Worms, in 882, did indeed issue a general proclamation, summoning all subjects to rise in arms, but they were compelled to put up with a disgraceful composition. These storms came from the north and the west. The Eastern side of the empire suffered from the inroads of the Magyars. These barbarian peoples traversed the country in wagons, and laid waste the whole of Southern Germany. Through Bavaria, Swabia, and Switzerland they penetrated into the interior of France and reached Italy. The Saracens pressed forward from the South. Sicily had been long in their hands : they thence obtained a firm footing in Italy, menaced Rome – which diverted their attack by a composition – and were the terror of Piedmont and Provence.</p> <p>Thus these three peoples invaded the empire from all sides in great masses, and in their desolating marches almost came into contact with each other. France was devastated by the Normans as far as the Jura ; the Hungarians reached Switzerland, and the Saracens Valaise. Calling to mind that organization of the “arrière-ban,” and considering it in juxtaposition with this miserable state of things, we cannot fail to be struck with the inefficiency of all those far- famed institutions, which at such a juncture ought to have shown themselves most effective. We might be inclined to regard the picture of the noble and rational constitution of the Frank monarchy under Charlemagne – exhibiting itself as strong, comprehensive, and well ordered, internally and externally – as a baseless figment. Yet it actually existed ; the entire political system being held together only by the power, the greatness, the regal soul of this one man – not based on the spirit of the people – not having become a vital element in it. It was superficially induced – an a priori constitution like that which Napoleon gave to Spain, and which disappeared with the physical power that sustained it. That, on the contrary, which renders a constitution real, is that it exists as Objective Freedom – the Substantial form of volition – as duty and obligation acknowledged by the subjects themselves. But obligation was not yet recognized by the German Spirit, which hitherto showed itself only as “Heart” and subjective choice ; for it there was as yet no subjectivity involving unity, but only a subjectivity conditioned by a careless superficial self-seeking. Thus that constitution was destitute of any firm bond ; it had no objective support in subjectivity ; for in fact no constitution was as yet possible.</p> <p>This leads us to the Second Reaction – that of individuals against the authority of law. The capacity of appreciating legal order and the common weal is altogether absent, has no vital existence in the peoples themselves. The duties of every free citizen, the authority of the judge to give judicial decisions, that of the count of a province to hold his court, and interest in the laws as such, are no longer regarded as valid now that the strong hand from above ceases to hold the reins of sovereignty. The brilliant administration of Charlemagne had vanished without leaving a trace, and the immediate consequence was the general defencelessness of individuals. The need of protection is sure to be felt in some degree in every well-organized state : each citizen knows his rights and also knows that for the security of possession the social state is absolutely necessary. Barbarians have not yet attained this sense of need – the want of protection from others. They look upon it as a limitation of their freedom if their rights must be guaranteed them by others. Thus, therefore, the impulse towards a firm organization did not exist : men must first be placed in a defenceless condition, before they were sensible of the necessity of the organization of a State. The political edifice had to be reconstructed from the very foundations. The commonwealth as then organized had no vitality or firmness at all either in itself or in the minds of the people ; and its weakness manifested itself in the fact that it was unable to give protection to its individual members. As observed above, the idea of duty was not present in the Spirit of the Germans ; it had to be restored. In the first instance volition could only be arrested in its wayward career in reference to the merely external point of possession ; and to make it feel the importance of the protection of the State, it had to be violently dislodged from its obtuseness and impelled by necessity to seek union and a social condition. Individuals were therefore obliged to consult for themselves by taking refuge with Individuals, and submitted to the authority of certain powerful persons, who constituted a private possession and personal sovereignty out of that authority which formerly belonged to the Commonwealth. As officers of the State, the counts did not meet with obedience from those committed to their charge, and they were as little desirous of it. Only for themselves did they covet it. They assumed to themselves the power of the State, and made the authority with which they had been intrusted as a beneficium, a heritable possession. As in earlier times the King or other magnates conferred fiefs on their vassals by way of rewards, now, conversely, the weaker and poorer surrendered their possessions to the strong, for the sake of gaining efficient protection. They committed their estates to a Lord, a Convent, an Abbot, a Bishop (feudum oblatum), and received them back, encumbered with feudal obligations to these superiors. Instead of freemen they became vassals – feudal dependants – and their possession a beneficium. This is the constitution of the Feudal System. “Feudum” is connected with “fides” ; the fidelity implied in this case is a bond established on unjust principles, a relation that does indeed contemplate a legitimate object, but whose import is not a whit the less injustice ; for the fidelity of vassals is not an obligation to the Commonwealth, but a private one – ipso facto therefore subject to the sway of chance, caprice, and violence. Universel injustice, universel lawlessness is reduced to a system of dependence on and obligation to individuals, so that the mere formal side of the matter, the mere fact of compact constitutes its sole connection with the principle of Right. – Since every man had to protect himself, the martial spirit, which in point of external defence seemed to have most ignominiously vanished, was reawakened ; for torpidity was roused to action partly by extreme ill-usage, partly by the greed and ambition of individuals. The valor that now manifested itself, was displayed not on behalf of the State, but of private interests. In every district arose castles ; fortresses were erected, and that for the defence of private property, and with a view to plunder the tyranny. In the way just mentioned, the political totality was ignored at those points where individual authority was established, among which the seats of bishops and archbishops deserve especial mention. The bishoprics had been freed from the jurisdiction of the judicial tribunals, and from the operations of the executive generally. The bishops had stewards on whom at their request the Emperors conferred the jurisdiction which the Counts had formerly exercised. Thus there were detached ecclesiastical domains – ecclesiastical districts which belonged to a saint (Germ. Weichbilder). Similar suzerainties of a secular kind were subsequently constituted. Both occupied the position of the previous Provinces [Gaue] or Counties [Grafschaften]. Only in a few towns where communities of freemen were independently strong enough to secure protection and safety, did relics of the ancient free constitution remain. With these exceptions the free communities entirely disappeared, and became subject to the prelates or to the Counts and Dukes, thenceforth known as seigneurs and princes. The imperial power was extolled in general terms, as something very great and exalted : the Emperor passed for the secular head of entire Christendom : but the more exalted the ideal dignity of the emperors, the more limited was it in reality. France derived extraordinary advantage from the fact that it entirely repudiated this baseless assumption, while in Germany the advance of political development was hindered by that pretence of power. The kings and emperors were no longer chiefs of the state, but of the princes, who were indeed their vassals, but possessed sovereignty and territorial lordships of their own. The whole social condition therefore, being founded on individual sovereignty, it might be supposed that the advance to a State would be possible only through the return of those individual sovereignties to an official relationship. But to accomplish this, a superior power would have been required, such as was not in existence ; for the feudal lords themselves determined how far they were still dependent on the general constitution of the state. No authority of Law and Right is valid any longer ; nothing but chance power – the crude caprice of particular as opposed to universelly valid Right ; and this struggles against equality of Rights and Laws. Inequality of political privileges – the allotment being the work of the purest haphazard – is the predominant feature. It is impossible that a Monarchy can arise from such a social condition through the subjugation of the several minor powers under the Chief of the State, as such. Reversely, the former were gradually transformed into Principalities [Fürstenthumer], and became united with the Principality of the Chief ; thus enabling the authority of the king and of the state to assert itself. While, therefore, the bond of political unity was still wanting, the several seigneuries attained their development independently.<br class='autobr' /> In France the dynasty of Charlemagne, like that of Clovis, became extinct through the weakness of the sovereigns who represented it. Their dominion was finally limited to the petty sovereignty of Laon ; and the last of the Carlovingians, Duke Charles of Lorraine, who laid claim to the crown after the death of Louis V, was defeated and taken prisoner. The powerful Hugh Capet, Duke of France, was proclaimed king. The title of King, however, gave him no real power ; his authority was based on his territorial possessions alone. At a later date, through purchase, marriage, and the dying out of families, the kings became possessed of many feudal domains ; and their authority was frequently invoked as a protection against the oppressions of the nobles. The royal authority in France became heritable at an early date, because the fiefs were heritable ; though at first the kings took the precaution to have their sons crowned during their lifetime. France was divided into many sovereignties : the Duchy of Guienne, the Earldom of Flanders, the Duchy of Gascony, the Earldom of Toulouse, the Duchy of Burgundy, the Earldom of Vermandois ; Lorraine too had belonged to France for some time. Normandy had been ceded to the Normans by the kings of France, in order to secure a temporary repose from their incursions. From Normandy Duke William passed over into England and conquered it in the year 1066. Here he introduced a fully developed feudal constitution – a network which, to a great extent, encompasses England even at the present day. And thus the Dukes of Normandy confronted the comparatively feeble Kings of France with a power of no inconsiderable pretensions. – Germany was composed of the great duchies of Saxony, Swabia, Bavaria, Carinthia, Lorraine and Burgundy, the Margraviate of Thuringia, etc. with several bishoprics and archbishoprics. Each of those duchies again was divided into several fiefs, enjoying more of less independence. The emperor seems often to have united several duchies under his immediate sovereignty. The Emperor Henry III was, when he ascended the throne, lord of many large dukedoms ; but he weakened his own power by enfeoffing them to others. Germany was radically a free nation, and had not, as France had, any dominant family as a central authority ; it continued an elective empire. Its princes refused to surrender the privilege of choosing their sovereign for themselves ; and at every new election they introduced new restrictive conditions, so that the imperial power was degraded to an empty shadow. – In Italy we find the same political condition. The German Emperors had pretensions to it : but their authority was valid only so far as they could support it by direct force of arms, and as the Italian cities and nobles deemed their own advantage to be promoted by submission. Italy was, like Germany, divided into many larger and smaller dukedoms, earldoms, bishoprics and seigneuries. The Pope had very little power, either in the North or in the South ; which latter was long divided between the Lombards and the Greeks, until both were overcome by the Normans. – Spain maintained a contest with the Saracens, either defensive or victorious, through the whole mediaeval period, till the latter finally succumbed to the more matured power of Christian civilization.<br class='autobr' /> Thus all Right vanished before individual Might ; for equality of Rights and rational legislation, where the interests of the political Totality, of the State, are kept in view, had no existence. The Third Reaction, noticed above, was that of the element of Universelity against the Real World as split up into particularity. This reaction proceeded from below upwards – from that condition of isolated possession itself ; and was then promoted chiefly by the church. A sense of the nothingness of its condition seized on the world as it were universelly. In that condition of utter isolation, where only the unsanctioned might of individuals had any validity [where the State was non-existent,] men could find no repose, and Christendom was, so to speak, agitated by the tremor of an evil conscience. In the eleventh century, the fear of the approaching final judgment and the belief in the speedy dissolution of the world, spread through all Europe. This dismay of soul impelled men to the most irrational proceedings. Some bestowed the whole of their possessions on the Church, and passed their lives in continual penance ; the majority dissipated their worldly all in riotous debauchery. The Church alone increased its riches by the hallucinations, through donations and bequests. – About the same time too, terrible famines swept away their victims : human flesh was sold in open market. During this state of things, lawlessness, brutal lust, the most barbarous caprice, deceit and cunning, were the prevailing moral features. Italy, the centre of Christendom, presented the most revolting aspect. Every virtue was alien to the times in question ; consequently virtus had lost its proper meaning : in common use it denoted only violence and oppression, sometimes even libidinous outrage. This corrupt state of things affected the clergy equally with the laity. Their own advowees had made themselves masters of the ecclesiastical estates intrusted to their keeping, and lived on them quite at their own pleasure, restricting the monks and clergy to a scanty pittance. Monasteries that refused to accept advowees were compelled to do so ; the neighboring lords taking the office upon themselves or giving it to their sons. Only bishops and abbots maintained themselves in possession, being able to protect themselves partly by their own power, partly by means of their retainers ; since they were, for the most part, of noble families.</p> <p>The bishoprics being secular fiefs, their occupants were bound to the performance of imperial and feudal service. The investiture of the bishops belonged to the sovereigns, and it was their interest that these ecclesiastics should be attached to them. Whoever desired a bishopric, therefore, had to make application to the king ; and thus a regular trade was carried on in bishoprics and abbacies. Usurers who had lent money to the sovereign, received compensation by the bestowal of the dignities in question ; the worst of men thus came into possession of spiritual offices. There could be no question that the clergy ought to have been chosen by the religious community, and there were always influential persons who had the right of electing them ; but the king compelled them to yield to his orders. Nor did the Papal dignity fare any better. Through a long course of years the Counts of Tusculum near Rome conferred it on members of their own family, or on persons to whom they had sold it for large sums of money. The state of things became at last so intolerable, that laymen as well as ecclesiastics of energetic character opposed its continuance. The Emperor Henry III put an end to the strife of factions, by nominating the Popes himself, and supporting them by his authority in defiance of the opposition of the Roman nobility. Pope Nicholas II decided that the Popes should be chosen by the Cardinals ; but as the latter partly belonged to dominant families, similar contests of factions continued to accompany their election. Gregory VII (already famous as Cardinal Hildebrand) sought to secure the independence of the church in this frightful condition of things, by two measures especially. First, he enforced the celibacy of the clergy. From the earliest times, it must be observed, the opinion had prevailed that it was commendable and desirable for the clergy to remain unmarried. Yet the annalists and chroniclers inform us that this requirement was but indifferently complied with. Nicholas II had indeed pronounced the married clergy to be a new sect ; but Gregory VII proceeded to enforce the restriction with extraordinary energy, excommunicating all the married clergy and all laymen who should hear mass when they officiated. In this way the ecclesiastical body was shut up within itself and excluded from the morality of the State. – His second measure was directed against simony, i.e. the sale of or arbitrary appointment to bishoprics and to the Papal See itself.</p> <p>Ecclesiastical offices were thenceforth to be filled by the clergy, who were capable of administering them ; an arrangement which necessarily brought the ecclesiastical body into violent collision with secular seigneurs.</p> <p>These were the two grand measures by which Gregory purposed to emancipate the Church from its condition of dependence and exposure to secular violence. But Gregory made still further demands on the secular power. The transference of benefices to a new incumbent was to receive validity simply in virtue of his ordination by his ecclesiastical superior, and the Pope was to have exclusive control over the vast property of the ecclesiastical community. The Church as a divinely constituted power, laid claim to supremacy over secular authority – founding that claim on the abstract principle that the Divine is superior to the Secular. The Emperor at his coronation – a ceremony which only the Pope could perform – was obliged to promise upon oath that he would always be obedient to the Pope and the Church. Whole countries and states, such as Naples, Portugal, England and Ireland came into a formal relation of vassalage to the Papal chair.</p> <p>Thus the Church attained an independent position : the Bishops convoked synods in the various countries, and in these convocations the clergy found a permanent centre of unity and support. In this way the Church attained the most influential position in secular affairs. It arrogated to itself the award of princely crowns, and assumed the part of mediator between sovereign powers in war and peace. The contingencies which particularly favored such interventions on the part of the Church were the marriages of princes. It frequently happened that princes wished to be divorced from their wives ; but for such a step they needed the permission of the Church. The latter did not let slip the opportunity of insisting upon the fulfilment of demands that might have been otherwise urged in vain, and thence advanced till it had obtained universel influence. In the chaotic state of the community generally, the intervention of the authority of the Church was felt as a necessity. By the introduction of the “Truce of God,” feuds and private revenge were suspended for at least certain days in the week, or even for entire weeks ; and the Church maintained this armistice by the use of all its ghostly appliances of excommunication, interdict and other threats and penalties. The secular possessions of the Church brought it however into a relation to other secular princes and lords, which was alien to its proper nature ; it constituted a formidable secular power in contraposition to them, and thus formed in the first instance a centre of opposition against violence and arbitrary wrong. It withstood especially the attacks upon the ecclesiastical foundations – the secular lordships of the Bishops ; and on occasion of opposition on the part of vassals to the violence and caprice of princes, the former had the support of the Pope. But in these proceedings the Church brought to bear against opponents only a force and arbitrary resolve of the same kind as their own, and mixed up its secular interest with its interest as an ecclesiastical, i.e., a divinely substantial power. Sovereigns and peoples were by no means incapable of discriminating between the two, or of recognizing the worldly aims that were apt to intrude as motives for ecclesiastical intervention. They therefore stood by the Church as far as they deemed it their interest to do so ; otherwise they showed no great dread of excommunication or other ghostly terrors. Italy was the country where the authority of the Popes was least respected ; and the worst usage they experienced was from the Romans themselves. Thus what the Popes acquired in point of land and wealth and direct sovereignty, they lost in influence and consideration.</p> <p>We have then to probe to its depths the spiritual element in the Church – the form of its power. The essence of the Christian principle has already been unfolded ; it is the principle of Mediation. Man realizes his Spiritual essence only when he conquers the Natural that attaches to him. This conquest is possible only on the supposition that the human and the divine nature are essentially one, and that Man, so far as he is Spirit, also possesses the essentiality and substantiality that belong to the idea of Deity. The condition of the mediation in question is the consciousness of this unity ; and the intuition of this unity was given to man in Christ. The object to be attained is therefore, that man should lay hold on this consciousness, and that it should be continually excited in him. This was the design of the Mass : in the Host Christ is set forth as actually, present ; the piece of bread consecrated by the priest is the present God, subjected to human contemplation and ever and anon offered up. One feature of this representation is correct, inasmuch as the sacrifice of Christ is here regarded as an actual and eternal transaction, Christ being not a mere sensuous and single, but a completely universel, i.e., divine, individuum ; but on the other hand it involves the error of isolating the sensuous phase ; for the Host is adored even apart from its being partaken of by the faithful, and the presence of Christ is not exclusively limited mental vision and Spirit. Justly therefore did the Lutheran Reformation make this dogma an especial object of attack. Luther proclaimed the great doctrine that the Host had spiritual value and Christ was received only on the condition of faith in him ; apart from this, the Host, he affirmed, was a mere external thing, possessed of no greater value than any other thing. But the Catholic falls down before the Host ; and thus the merely outward has sanctity ascribed to it. The Holy as a mere thing has the character of externality ; thus it is capable of being taken possession of by another to my exclusion : it may come into an alien hand, since the process of appropriating it is not one that takes place in Spirit, but is conditioned by its quality as an external object [Dingheit]. The highest of human blessings is in the hands of others. Here arises ipso facto a separation between those who possess this blessing and those who have to receive it from others – between the Clergy and the Laity. The laity as such are alien to the Divine. This is the absolute schism in which the Church in the Middle Ages was involved : it arose from the recognition of the Holy as something external. The clergy imposed certain conditions, to which the laity must conform if they would be partakers of the Holy. The entire development of doctrine, spiritual insight and the knowledge of divine things, belonged exclusively to the Church : it has to ordain, and the laity have simply to believe : obedience is their duty – the obedience of faith, without insight on their part. This position of things rendered faith a matter of external legislation, and resulted in compulsion and the stake. The generality of men are thus cut off from the Church ; and on the same principle they are severed from the Holy in every form. For on the same principle as that by which the clergy are the medium between man on the one hand and God and Christ on the other hand, the layman cannot directly apply to the Divine Being in his prayers, but only through mediators – human beings who conciliate God for him, the Dead, the Perfect – Saints. Thus originated the adoration of the Saints, and with it that conglomerate of fables and falsities with which the Saints and their biographies have been invested. In the East the worship of images had early become popular, and after a lengthened struggle had triumphantly established itself : – an image, a picture, though sensuous, still appeals rather to the imagination ; but the coarser natures of the West desired something more immediate as the object of their contemplation, and thus arose the worship of relics. The consequence was a formal resurrection of the dead in the mediaeval period, every pious Christian wished to be in possession of such sacred earthly remains. Among the Saints the chief object of adoration was the Virgin Mary. She is certainly the beautiful concept of pure love – a mother's love ; but Spirit and Thought stand higher than even this ; and in the worship of this conception that of God in Spirit was lost, and Christ himself was set aside. The element of mediation between God and man was thus apprehended and held as something external. Thus through the perversion of the principle of Freedom, absolute Slavery became the established law. The other aspects and relations of the spiritual life of Europe during this period flow from this principle. Knowledge, comprehension of religious doctrine, is something of which Spirit is judged incapable ; it is the exclusive possession of a class, which has to determine the True. For man may not presume to stand in a direct relation to God ; so that, as we said before, if he would apply to Him, he needs a mediator – a Saint. This view imports the denial of the essential unity of the Divine and Human ; since man, as such, is declared incapable of recognizing the Divine and of approaching thereto. And while humanity is thus separated from the Supreme Good, no change of heart, as such, is insisted upon – for this would suppose that the unity of the Divine and the Human is to be found in man himself – but the terrors of Hell are exhibited to man in the most terrible colors, to induce him to escape from them, not by moral amendment, but in virtue of something external – the “means of grace.” These, however, are an arcanum to the laity ; another – the “Confessor,” must furnish him with them. The individual has to confess – is bound to expose all the particulars of his life and conduct to the view of the Confessor – and then is informed what course he has to pursue to attain spiritual safety. Thus the Church took the place of Conscience : it put men in leading strings like children, and told them that man could not be freed from the torments which his sins had merited, by any amendment of his own moral condition, but by outward actions, opera operata – actions which were not the promptings of his own good-will, but performed by command of the ministers of the church ; e.g., hearing mass, doing penance, going through a certain number of prayers, undertaking pilgrimages – actions which are unspiritual, stupefy the soul, and which are not only mere external ceremonies, but are such as can be even vicariously performed, The supererogatory works ascribed to the saints, could be purchased, and the spiritual advantage which they merited, secured to the purchaser. Thus was produced an utter derangement of all that is recognized as good and moral in the Christian Church : only external requirements are insisted upon, and these can be complied with in a merely external way. A condition the very reverse of Freedom is intruded into the principle of freedom itself.</p> <p>With this perversion is connected the absolute separation of the spiritual from the secular principle generally. There are two Divine Kingdoms – the intellectual in the heart and cognitive faculty, and the socially ethical whose element and sphere is secular existence. It is science alone that can comprehend the kingdom of God and the socially Moral world as one Idea, and that recognizes the fact that the course of Time has witnessed a process ever tending to the realization of this unity. But Piety [or Religious Feeling] as such, has nothing to do with the Secular : it may make its appearance in that sphere on a mission of mercy, but this stops short of a strict socially ethical connection with it – does not come up to the idea of Freedom. Religious Feeling is extraneous to History, and has no History ; for History is rather the Empire of Spirit recognizing itself in its Subjective Freedom, as the economy of social morality [sittliches Reich] in the State. In the Middle Ages that embodying of the Divine in actual life was wanting ; the antithesis was not harmonized. Social morality was represented as worthless, and that in its three most essential particulars.</p> <p>One phase of social morality is that connected with Love – with the emotions called forth in the marriage relation. It is not proper to say that Celibacy is contrary to Nature, but that it is adverse to Social Morality [Sittlichkeit]. Marriage was indeed reckoned by the Church among the Sacraments ; but notwithstanding the position thus assigned it, it was degraded, inasmuch as celibacy was reckoned as the more holy state. A second point of social morality is presented in Activity – the workman has to perform for his subsistence. His dignity consists in his depending entirely on his diligence, conduct, and intelligence, for the supply of his wants. In direct contravention of this principle, Pauperism, laziness, inactivity, was regarded as nobler : and the Immoral thus received the stamp of consecration. A third point of morality is, that obedience be rendered to the Moral and Rational, as an obedience to laws which I recognize as just ; that it be not that blind and unconditional compliance which does not know what it is doing, and whose course of action is a mere groping about without clear consciousness or intelligence. But it was exactly this latter kind of obedience that passed for the most pleasing to God ; a doctrine that exalts the obedience of Slavery, imposed by the arbitrary will of the Church, above the true obedience of Freedom.<br class='autobr' /> In this way the three vows of Chastity, Poverty, and Obedience turned out the very opposite of what they assumed to be, and in them all social morality was degraded. The Church was no longer a spiritual power, but an ecclesiastical one ; and the relation which the secular world sustained to it was unspiritual, automatic, and destitute of independent insight and conviction. As the consequence of this, we see everywhere vice, utter absence of respect for conscience, shamelessness, and a distracted state of things, of which the entire history of the period is the picture in detail.</p> <p>According to the above, the Church of the Middle Ages exhibits itself as a manifold Self- contradiction. For Subjective Spirit, although testifying of the Absolute, is at the same time limited and definitely existing Spirit, as Intelligence and Will. Its limitation begins in its taking up this distinctive position, and here consentaneously begins its contradictory and self-alienated phase ; for that intelligence and will are not imbued with the Truth, which appears in relation to them as something given [posited ab extra]. This externality of the Absolute Object of comprehension affects the consciousness thus : – that the Absolute Object presents itself as a merely sensuous, external thing – common outward existence – and yet claims to be Absolute : in the mediaeval view of things this absolute demand is made upon Spirit. The second form of the contradiction in question has to do with the relation which the Church itself sustains. The true Spirit exists in man – is his Spirit ; and the individual gives himself the certainty of this identity with the Absolute, in worship – the Church sustaining merely the relation of a teacher and directress of this worship. But here, on the contrary, we have an ecclesiastical body, like the Brahmins in India, in possession of the Truth – not indeed by birth, but in virtue of knowledge, teaching and training – yet with the proviso that this alone is not sufficient, an external form, an unspiritual title being judged essential to actual possession. This outward form is Ordination, whose nature is such that the consecration imparted inheres essentially like a sensuous quality in the individual, whatever be the character of his soul – be he irreligious, immoral, or absolutely ignorant. The third kind of contradiction is the Church itself, in its acquisition as an outward existence, of possessions and an enormous property – state of things which, since that Church despises or professes to despise riches, is none other than a Lie.<br class='autobr' /> And we found the State, during the mediaeval period, similarly involved in contradictions. We spoke above of an imperial rule, recognized as standing by the side of the Church and constituting its secular arm. But the power thus acknowledged is invalidated by the fact that the imperial dignity in question is an empty title, not regarded by the Emperor himself or by those who wish to make him the instrument of their ambitious views, as conferring solid authority on its possessor ; for passion and physical force assume an independent position, and own no subjection to that merely abstract conception. But secondly, the bond of union which holds the Mediaeval State together, and which we call Fidelity, is left to the arbitrary choice of men's disposition [Gemüth] which recognizes no objective duties. Consequently, this Fidelity is the most unfaithful thing possible. German Honor in the Middle Ages has become a proverb ; but examined more closely as History exhibits it we find it a veritable Punica fides or Groeca fides ; for the princes and vassals of the Emperor are true and honorable only to their selfish aims, individual advantage and passions, but utterly untrue to the Empire and the Emperor ; because in “Fidelity” in the abstract, their subjective caprice receives a sanction, and the State is not organized as a moral totality. A third contradiction presents itself in the character of individuals, exhibiting, as they do on the one hand, piety – religious devotion, the most beautiful in outward aspect, and springing from the very depths of sincerity – and on the other hand a barbarous deficiency in point of intelligence and will. We find an acquaintance with abstract Truth, and yet the most uncultured, the rudest ideas of the Secular and the Spiritual : a truculent delirium of passion and yet a Christian sanctity which renounces all that is worldly, and devotes itself entirely to holiness. So self-contradictory, so deceptive is this mediaeval period ; and the polemical zeal with which its excellence is contended for, is one of the absurdities of our times. Primitive barbarism, rudeness of manners, and childish fancy are not revolting ; they simply excite our pity. But the highest purity of soul defiled by the most horrible barbarity ; the Truth, of which a knowledge has been acquired, degraded to a mere tool by falsehood and self-seeking ; that which is most irrational, coarse and vile, established and strengthened by the religious sentiment – this is the most disgusting and revolting spectacle that was ever witnessed, and which only Philosophy can comprehend and so justify. For such an antithesis must arise in man's consciousness of the Holy while this consciousness still remains primitive and immediate ; and the profounder the truth to which Spirit comes into an implicit relation – while it has not vet become aware of its own presence in that profound truth – so much the more alien is it to itself in this its unknown form : but only as the result of this alienation does it attain its true harmonization.</p> <p>We have then contemplated the Church as the reaction of the Spiritual against the secular life of the time ; but this reaction is so conditioned, that it only subjects to itself that against which it reacts – does not reform it. While the Spiritual, repudiating its proper sphere of action, has been acquiring secular power, a secular sovereignty has also consolidated itself and attained a systematic development – the Feudal System. As through their isolation, men are reduced to a dependence on their individual power and might, every point in the world on which a human being can maintain his ground becomes an energetic one. While the Individual still remains destitute of the defence of laws and is protected only by his own exertion, life, activity and excitement everywhere manifest themselves. As men are certain of eternal salvation through the instrumentality of the Church, and to this end are bound to obey it only in its spiritual requirements, their ardor in the pursuit of worldly enjoyment increases, on the other hand, in inverse proportion to their fear of its producing any detriment to their spiritual weal ; for the Church bestows indulgences, when required, for oppressive, violent and vicious actions of all kinds.</p> <p>The period from the eleventh to the thirteenth century witnessed the rise of an impulse which developed itself in various forms. The inhabitants of various districts began to build enormous churches – Cathedrals, erected to contain the whole community. Architecture is always the first art, forming the inorganic phase, the domiciliation of the divinity ; not till this is accomplished does Art attempt to exhibit to the worshippers the divinity himself – the Objective. Maritime commerce was carried on with vigor by the cities on the Italian, Spanish, and Flemish coasts, and this stimulated the productive industry of their citizens at home. The Sciences began in some degree to revive : the Scholastic Philosophy was in its glory. Schools for the study of law were founded at Bologna and other places, as also for that of medicine. It is on the rise and growing importance of the Towns, that all these creations depend as their main condition ; a favorite subject of historical treatment in modern times. And the rise of such communities was greatly desiderated. For the Towns, like the Church, present themselves as reactions against feudal violence – as the earliest legally and regularly constituted power. Mention has already been made of the fact that the possessors of power compelled others to put themselves under their protection. Such centres of safety were castles [Burgen], churches and monasteries, round which were collected those who needed protection. These now became burghers [Burger], and entered into a cliental relation to the lords of such castles or to monastic bodies. Thus a firmly established community was formed in many places. Many cities and fortified places [Castelle] still existed in Italy, in the South of France, and in Germany on the Rhine, which dated their existence from the ancient Roman times, and which originally possessed municipal rights, but subsequently lost them under the rule of feudal governors [Vögte]. The citizens, like their rural neighbors, had been reduced to vassalage.</p> <p>The principle of free possession however began to develop itself from the protective relation of feudal protection ; i.e., freedom originated in its direct contrary. The feudal lords or great barons enjoyed, properly speaking, no free or absolute possession, any more than their dependents ; they had unlimited power over the latter, but at the same time they also were vassals of princes higher and mightier than themselves, and to whom they were under engagements – which, it must be confessed, they did not fulfil except under compulsion. The ancient Germans had known of none other than free possession ; but this principle had been perverted into its complete opposite, and now for the first time we behold the few feeble commencements of a reviving sense of freedom. Individuals brought into closer relation by the soil which they cultivated, formed among themselves a kind of union, confederation, or conjuratio. They agreed to be and to perform on their own behalf that which they had previously been and performed in the service of their feudal lord alone. Their first united undertaking was the erection of a tower in which a bell was suspended : the ringing of the bell was a signal for a general rendezvous, and the object of the union thus appointed was the formation of a kind of militia. This is followed by the institution of a municipal government, consisting of magistrates, jurors, consuls, and the establishment of a common treasury, the imposition of taxes, tolls, etc. Trenches are dug and walls built for the common defence, and the citizens are forbidden to erect fortresses for themselves individually. In such a community, handicrafts, as distinguished from agriculture, find their proper home. Artisans necessarily soon attained a superior position to that of the tillers of the ground, for the latter were forcibly driven to work ; the former displayed activity really their own, and a corresponding diligence and interest in the result of their labors. Formerly artisans had been obliged to get permission from their liege lords to sell their work, and thus earn something for themselves : they were obliged to pay them a certain sum for this privilege of market, besides contributing a portion of their gains to the baronial exchequer. Those who had houses of their own were obliged to pay a considerable quit-rent for them ; on all that was imported and exported, the nobility imposed large tolls, and for the security afforded to travellers they exacted safe-conduct money. When at a later date these communities became stronger, all such feudal rights were purchased from the nobles, or the cession of them compulsorily extorted : by degrees the towns secured an independent jurisdiction and likewise freed themselves from all taxes, tolls and rents. The burden which continued the longest was the obligation the towns were under to make provision for the Emperor and his whole retinue during his stay within their precincts, as also for seigneurs of inferior rank under the same circumstances. The trading class subsequently divided itself into guilds, to each of which were attached particular rights and obligations. The factions to which episcopal elections and other contingencies gave rise, very often promoted the attainment by the towns of the rights above-mentioned. As it would not infrequently happen that two rival bishops were elected to the same see, each one sought to draw the citizens into his own interest, by granting them privileges and freeing them from burdens. Subsequently arose many feuds with the clergy, the bishops and abbots. In some towns they maintained their position as lords of the municipality ; in others the citizens got the upper hand, and obtained their freedom. Thus, e.g., Cologne threw off the yoke of its bishop ; Mayence on the other hand remained subject. By degrees cities grew to be independent republics : first and foremost in Italy, then in the Netherlands, Germany, and France. They soon come to occupy a peculiar position with respect to the nobility. The latter united itself with the corporations of the towns, and constituted as e.g., in Berne, a particular guild. It soon assumed special powers in the corporations of the towns and attained a dominant position ; but the citizens resisted the usurpation and secured the government to themselves. The rich citizens (populus crassus) now excluded the nobility from power. But in the same way as the party of the nobility was divided into factions – especially those of Ghibellines and Guelfs, of which the former favored the Emperor, the latter the Pope – that of the citizens also was rent in sunder by intestine strife. The victorious faction was accustomed to exclude its vanquished opponents from power. The patrician nobility which supplanted the feudal aristocracy, deprived the common people of all share in the conduct of the state, and thus proved itself no less oppressive than the original noblesse. The history of the cities presents us with a continual change of constitutions, according as one party among the citizens or the other – this faction or that, got the upper hand. Originally a select body of citizens chose the magistrates ; but as in such elections the victorious faction always had the greatest influence, no other means of securing impartial functionaries was left, but the election of foreigners to the office of judge and podésta. It also frequently happened that the cities chose foreign princes as supreme seigneurs, and intrusted them with the signoria. But all of these arrangements were only of short continuance ; the princes soon misused their sovereignty to promote their own ambitious designs and to gratify their passions, and in a few years were once more deprived of their supremacy. – Thus the history of these cities presents on the one hand, in individual characters marked by the most terrible or the most admirable features, an astonishingly interesting picture ; on the other hand it repels us by assuming, as it unavoidably does, the aspect of mere chronicles. In contemplating the restless and ever-varying impulses that agitate the very heart of these cities and the continual struggles of factions, we are astonished to see on the other side industry – commerce by land and sea – in the highest degree prosperous. It is the same principle of lively vigor, which, nourished by the internal excitement in question, produces this phenomenon.</p> <p>We have contemplated the Church, which extended its power over all the sovereignties of the time, and the Cities, where a social organization on a basis of Right was first resuscitated, as powers reacting against the authority of princes and feudal lords. Against these two rising powers, there followed a reactionary movement of princely authority ; the Emperor now enters on a struggle with the Pope and the cities. The Emperor is recognized as the apex of Christian, i.e. secular power, the Pope on the other hand as that of Ecclesiastical power, which had now however become as decidedly a secular dominion. In theory, it was not disputed that the Roman Emperor was the Head of Christendom – that he possessed the dominium mundi – that since all Christian states belonged to the Roman Empire, their princes owed him allegiance in all reasonable and equitable requirements. However satisfied the emperors themselves might be of the validity of this claim, they had too much good sense to attempt seriously to enforce if but the empty title of Roman Emperor was a sufficient inducement to them to exert themselves to the utmost to acquire and maintain it in Italy. The Othos especially cherished the idea of the continuation of the old Roman empire, and were ever and anon summoning the German princes to join them in an expedition to Rome with a view to coronation there ; – an undertaking in which they were often deserted by them and had to undergo the shame of a retreat. Equal disappointment was experienced by those Italians who hoped for deliverance at the hands of the Emperor from the ochlocracy that domineered over the cities, or from the violence of the feudal nobility in the country at large. The Italian princes who had invoked the presence of the Emperor and had promised him aid in asserting his claims, drew back and left him in the lurch ; and those who had previously expected salvation for their country, then broke out into bitter complaints that their beautiful country was devastated by barbarians, their superior civilization trodden under foot, and that right and liberty, deserted by the Emperor, must also perish. Especially touching and deep are the lamentations and reproaches which Dante addresses to the Emperors.<br class='autobr' /> The second complication with Italy was that struggle which contemporaneously with the former was sustained chiefly by the great Swabians – the house of Hohenstaufen – and whose object was to bring back the secular power of the Church, which had become independent, to its original dependence on the state. The Papal See was also a secular power and sovereignty, and the Emperor asserted the superior prerogative of choosing the Pope and investing him with his secular sovereignty. It was these rights of the State for which the Emperors contended. But to that secular power which they withstood, they were at the same time subject, in virtue of its spiritual pretensions : thus the contest was an interminable contradiction. Contradictory as the varying phases of the contest, in which reconciliation was ever alternating with renewed hostilities, was also the instrumentality employed in the struggle. For the power with which the Emperors made head against their enemy – the princes, their servants and subjects, were divided in their own minds, inasmuch as they were bound by the strongest ties of allegiance to the Emperor and to his enemy at one and the same time. The chief interest of the princes lay in that very assumption of independence in reference to the State, against which on the part of the Papal See the Emperor was contending ; so that they were willing to stand by the Emperor in cases where the empty dignity of the imperial crown was impugned, or on some particular occasions – e.g., in a contest with the cities – but abandoned him when he aimed at seriously asserting his authority against the secular power of the clergy, or against other princes. As, on the one hand, the German emperors sought to realize their title in Italy, so, on the other hand, Italy had its political centre in Germany. The interests of the two countries were thus linked together, and neither could gain political consolidation within itself. In the brilliant period of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, individuals of commanding character sustained the dignity of the throne ; sovereigns like Frederick Barbarossa, in whom the imperial power manifested itself in its greatest majesty, and who by his personal qualities succeeded in attaching the subject princes to his interests. Yet brilliant as the history of the Hohenstaufen dynasty may appear, and stirring as might have been the contest with the Church, the former presents on the whole nothing more than the tragedy of this house itself, and the latter had no important result in the sphere of Spirit. The cities were indeed compelled to acknowledge the imperial authority, and their deputies swore to observe the decisions of the Roncalian Diet ; but they kept their word no longer than they were compelled to do so. Their sense of obligation depended exclusively on the direct consciousness of a superior power ready to enforce it. It is said that when the Emperor Frederick I asked the deputies of the cities whether they had not sworn to the conditions of peace, they answered : “Yes, but not that we would observe them.” The result was that Frederick I at the Peace of Constance (1183) was obliged to concede to them a virtual independence ; although he appended the stipulation, that in this concession their feudal obligations to the German Empire were understood to be reserved. The contest between the Emperors and the Popes regarding investitures was settled at the close of 1122 by Henry V and Pope Calixtus II on these terms : the Emperor was to invest with the sceptre ; the Pope with the ring and crosier ; the chapter were to elect the Bishops in the presence of the Emperor or of imperial commissioners ; then the Emperor was to invest the Bishop as a secular feudatory with the temper alia, while the ecclesiastical investiture was reserved for the Pope. Thus the protracted contest between the secular and spiritual powers was at length set at rest.</p> <p>Chapter II. The Crusades.</p> <p>The Church gained the victory in the struggle referred to in the previous chapter ; and in this way secured as decided a supremacy in Germany, as she did in the other states of Europe by a calmer process. She made herself mistress of all the relations of life, and of science and art ; and she was the permanent repository of spiritual treasures. Yet notwithstanding this full and complete development of ecclesiastical life, we find a deficiency and consequent craving manifesting itself in Christendom, and which drove it out of itself. To understand this want, we must revert to the nature of the Christian religion itself, and particularly to that aspect of it by which it has a footing in the Present in the consciousness of its votaries.</p> <p>The objective doctrines of Christianity had been already so firmly settled by the Councils of the Church, that neither the mediaeval nor any other philosophy could develop them further, except in the way of exalting them intellectually, so that they might be satisfactory as presenting the form of Thought. And one essential point in this doctrine was the recognition of the Divine Nature as not in any sense an other-world existence [ein Jenseits], but as in unity with Human Nature in the Present and Actual. But this Presence is at the same time exclusively Spiritual Presence. Christ as a particular human personality has left the world ; his temporal existence is only a past one – i.e., it exists only in mental conception. And since the Divine existence on earth is essentially of a spiritual character, it cannot appear in the form of a Dalai-Lama. The Pope, however high his position as Head of Christendom and Vicar of Christ, calls himself only the Servant of Servants. How then did the Church realize Christ as a definite and present existence ? The principal form of this realization was, as remarked above, the Holy Supper, in the form it presented as the Mass : in this the Life, Suffering, and Death of the actual Christ were verily present, as an eternal and daily repeated sacrifice. Christ appears as a definite and present existence in a sensuous form as the Host, consecrated by the Priest ; so far all is satisfactory : that is to say, it is the Church, the Spirit of Christ, that attains in this ordinance direct and full assurance. But the most prominent feature in this sacrament is, that the process by which Deity is manifested, is conditioned by the limitations of particularity – that the Host, this Thing, is set up to be adored as God. The Church then might have been able to content itself with this sensuous presence of Deity ; but when it is once granted that God exists in external phenomenal presence, this external manifestation immediately becomes infinitely varied ; for the need of this presence is infinite. Thus innumerable instances will occur in the experience of the Church, in which Christ has appeared to one and another, in various places ; and still more frequently his divine Mother, who as standing nearer to humanity, is a second mediator between the Mediator and man (the miracle-working images of the Virgin are in their way Hosts, since they supply a benign and gracious presence of God). In all places, therefore, there will occur manifestations of the Heavenly, in specially gracious appearances, the stigmata of Christ's Passion, etc. ; and the Divine will be realized in miracles as detached and isolated phenomena. In the period in question the Church presents the aspect of a world of miracle ; to the community of devout and pious persons natural existence has utterly lost its stability and certainty : rather, absolute certainty has turned against it, and the Divine is not conceived of by Christendom under conditions of universelity as the law and nature of Spirit, but reveals itself in isolated and detached phenomena, in which the rational form of existence is utterly perverted.</p> <p>In this complete development of the Church, we may find a deficiency : but what can be felt as a want by it ? What compels it, in this state of perfect satisfaction and enjoyment, to wish for something else within the limits of its own principles – without apostatizing from itself ? Those miraculous images, places, and times, are only isolated points, momentary appearances – are not an embodiment of Deity, not of the highest and absolute kind. The Host, the supreme manifestation, is to be found indeed in innumerable churches ; Christ is therein transubstantiated to a present and particular existence : but this itself is of a vague and general character ; it is not his actual and very presence as particularized in Space. That presence has passed away, as regards time ; but as spatial and as concrete in space it has a mundane permanence in this particular spot, this particular village, etc. It is then this mundane existence [in Palestine] which Christendom desiderates, which it is resolved on attaining. Pilgrims in crowds had indeed been able to enjoy it ; but the approach to the hallowed localities is in the hands of the Infidels, and it is a reproach to Christendom that the Holy Places and the Sepulchre of Christ in particular are not in possession of the Church. In this feeling Christendom was united ; consequently the Crusades were undertaken, whose object was not the furtherance of any special interests on the part of the several states that engaged in them, but simply and solely the conquest of the Holy Land.<br class='autobr' /> The West once more sallied forth in hostile array against the East. As in the expedition of the Greeks against Troy, so here the invading hosts were entirely composed of independent feudal lords and knights ; though they were not united under a real individuality, as were the Greeks under Agamemnon or Alexander. Christendom, on the contrary, was engaged in an undertaking whose object was the securing of the definite and present existence [of Deity] – the real culmination of Individuality. This object impelled the West against the East, and this is the essential interest of the Crusades.<br class='autobr' /> The first and immediate commencement of the Crusades was made in the West itself. Many thousands of Jews were massacred, and their property seized ; and after this terrible prelude Christendom began its march. The monk, Peter the Hermit of Amiens, led the way with an immense troop of rabble. This host passed in the greatest disorder through Hungary, and robbed and plundered as they went ; but their numbers dwindled away, and only a few reached Constantinople. For rational considerations were out of the question ; the mass of them believed that God would be their immediate guide and protector. The most striking proof that enthusiasm almost robbed the nations of Europe of their senses, is supplied by the fact that at a later time troops of children ran away from their parents, and went to Marseilles, there to take ship for the Holy Land. Few reached it ; the rest were sold by the merchants to the Saracens as slaves.<br class='autobr' /> At last, with much trouble and immense loss, more regular armies attained the desired object ; they beheld themselves in possession of all the Holy Places of note – Bethlehem, Gethsemane, Golgotha, and even the Holy Sepulchre. In the whole expedition – in all the acts of the Christians – appeared that enormous contrast (a feature characteristic of the age) – the transition on the part of the Crusading host from the greatest excesses and outrages to the profoundest contrition and humiliation. Still dripping with the blood of the slaughtered inhabitants of Jerusalem, the Christians fell down on their faces at the tomb of the Redeemer, and directed their fervent supplications to him.</p> <p>Thus did Christendom come into the possession of its highest good. Jerusalem was made a kingdom, and the entire feudal system was introduced there – a constitution which, in presence of the Saracens, was certainly the worst that could be adopted. Another crusade in the year 1204 resulted in the conquest of Constantinople and the establishment of a Latin Empire there. Christendom, therefore, had appeased its religious craving ; it could now veritably walk unobstructed in the footsteps of the Saviour. Whole shiploads of earth were brought from the Holy Land to Europe. Of Christ himself no corporeal relics could be obtained, for he was arisen : the Sacred Handkerchief, the Cross, and lastly the Sepulchre, were the most venerated memorials. But in the Grave is found the real point of retro-version ; it is in the grave that all the vanity of the Sensuous perishes. At the Holy Sepulchre the vanity of [the cherished] opinion passes away [the fancies by which the substance of truth has been obscured disappear] ; there all is seriousness. In the negation of that definite and present embodiment – i.e., of the Sensuous – it is that the turning-point in question is found, and those words have an application : “Thou wouldst not suffer thy Holy One to see corruption.” Christendom was not to find its ultimatum of truth in the grave. At this sepulchre the Christian world received a second time the response given to the disciples when they sought the body of the Lord there : “Why seek ye the living among the dead ? He is not here, but is risen.” You must not look for the principle of your religion in the Sensuous, in the grave among the dead, but in the living Spirit in yourselves. We have seen how the vast idea of the union of the Finite with the Infinite was perverted to such a degree as that men looked for a definite embodiment of the Infinite in a mere isolated outward object [the Host]. Christendom found the empty Sepulchre, but not the union of the Secular and the Eternal ; and so it lost the Holy Land. It was practically undeceived ; and the result which it brought back with it was of a negative kind : viz., that the definite embodiment which it was seeking, was to be looked for in Subjective Consciousness alone, and in no external object ; that the definite form in question, presenting the union of the Secular with the Eternal, is the Spiritual self-cognizant independence of the individual. Thus the world attains the conviction that man must look within himself for that definite embodiment of being which is of a divine nature : subjectivity thereby receives absolute authorization, and claims to determine for itself the relation [of all that exists] to the Divine.[32] This then was the absolute result of the Crusades, and from them we may date the commencement of self-reliance and spontaneous activity. The West bade an eternal farewell to the East at the Holy Sepulchre, and gained a comprehension of its own principle of subjective infinite Freedom. Christendom never appeared again on the scene of history as one body.</p> <p>Crusades of another kind, bearing somewhat the character of wars with a view to mere secular conquest, but which involved a religious interest also, were the contests waged by Spain against the Saracens in the peninsula itself. The Christians had been shut up in a corner by the Arabs ; but they gained upon their adversaries in strength, because the Saracens in Spain and Africa were engaged in war in various directions, and were divided among themselves. The Spaniards, united with Frank knights, undertook frequent expeditions against the Saracens ; and in this collision of the Christians with the chivalry of the East – with its freedom and perfect independence of soul – the former became also partakers in this freedom. Spain gives us the fairest picture of the knighthood of the Middle Ages, and its hero is the Cid. Several Crusades, the records of which excite our unmixed loathing and detestation, were undertaken against the South of France also. There an aesthetic culture had developed itself : the Troubadours had introduced a freedom of manners similar to that which prevailed under the Hohenstaufen Emperors in Germany ; but with this difference, that the former had in it something affected, while the latter was of a more genuine kind. But as in Upper Italy, so also in the South of France fanatical ideas of purity had been introduced ;[33] a Crusade was therefore preached against that country by Papal authority. St. Dominic entered it with a vast host of invaders, who, in the most barbarous manner, pillaged and murdered the innocent and the guilty indiscriminately, and utterly laid waste the fair region which they inhabited.</p> <p>Through the Crusades the Church reached the completion of its authority : it had achieved the perversion of religion and of the divine Spirit ; it had distorted the principle of Christian Freedom to a wrongful and immoral slavery of men's souls ; and in so doing, far from abolishing lawless caprice and violence and supplanting them by a virtuous rule of its own, it had even enlisted them in the service of ecclesiastical authority. In the Crusades the Pope stood at the head of the secular power : the Emperor appeared only in a subordinate position, like the other princes, and was obliged to commit both the initiative and the executive to the Pope, as the manifest generalissimo of the expedition. We have already seen the noble house of Hohenstaufen presenting the aspect of chivalrous, dignified and cultivated opponents of the Papal power, when Spirit [the moral and intellectual element in Christendom] had given up the contest. We have seen how they were ultimately obliged to yield to the Church ; which, elastic enough to sustain any attack, bore down all opposition and would not move a step towards conciliation. The fall of the Church was not to be effected by open violence ; it was from within – by the power of Spirit and by an influence that wrought its way upwards – that ruin threatened it. Respect for the Papacy could not but be weakened by the very fact that the lofty aim of the Crusades – the satisfaction expected from the enjoyment of the sensuous Presence – was not attained. As little did the Popes succeed in keeping possession of the Holy Land. Zeal for the holy cause was exhausted among the princes of Europe. Grieved to the heart by the defeat of the Christians, the Popes again and again urged them to advance to the rescue ; but lamentations and entreaties were vain, and they could effect nothing. Spirit, disappointed with regard to its craving for the highest form of the sensuous presence of Deity, fell back upon itself. A rupture, the first of its kind and profound as it was novel, took place. From this time forward we witness religious and intellectual movements in which Spirit – transcending the repulsive and irrational existence by which it is surrounded – either finds its sphere of exercise within itself, and draws upon its own resources for satisfaction, or throws its energies into an actual world of general and morally justified aims, which are therefore aims consonant with Freedom. The efforts thus originated are now to be described : they were the means by which Spirit was to be prepared to comprehend the grand purpose of its Freedom in a form of greater purity and moral elevation.</p> <p>To this class of movements belongs in the first place the establishment of monastic and chivalric orders, designed to carry out those rules of life which the Church had distinctly enjoined upon its members. That renunciation of property, riches, pleasures, and free will, which the Church had designated as the highest of spiritual attainments, was to be a reality – not a mere profession. The existing monastic and other institutions that had adopted this vow of renunciation, had been entirely sunk in the corruption of worldliness. But now Spirit sought to realize in the sphere of the principle of negativity – purely in itself – what the Church had demanded. The more immediate occasion of this movement was the rise of numerous heresies in the South of France and Italy, whose tendency was in the direction of enthusiasm ; and the unbelief which was now gaining ground, but which the Church justly deemed not so dangerous as those heresies. To counteract these evils, new monastic orders were founded, the chief of which was that of the Franciscans, or Mendicant Friars, whose founder, St. Francis of Assisi – a man possessed by an enthusiasm and ecstatic passion that passed all bounds – spent his life in continually striving for the loftiest purity. He gave an impulse of the same kind to his order ; the greatest fervor of devotion, the sacrifice of all pleasures in contravention of the prevailing worldliness of the Church, continual penances, the severest poverty (the Franciscans lived on daily alms) – were therefore peculiarly characteristic of it. Contemporaneously with it arose the Dominican order, founded by St. Dominic ; its special business was preaching. The mendicant friars were diffused through Christendom to an incredible extent ; they were, on the one hand, the standing apostolic army of the Pope, while, on the other hand, they strongly protested against his worldliness. The Franciscans were powerful allies of Louis of Bavaria in his resistance of the Papal assumptions, and they are said to have been the authors of the position, that a General Council was higher authority than the Pope ; but subsequently they too sank down into a torpid and unintelligent condition. In the same way the ecclesiastical Orders of Knighthood contemplated the attainment of purity of Spirit. We have already called attention to the peculiar chivalric spirit which had been developed in Spain through the struggle with the Saracens : the same spirit was diffused as the result of the Crusades through the whole of Europe. The ferocity and savage valor that characterized the predatory life of the barbarians – pacified and brought to a settled state by possession, and restrained by the presence of equals – was elevated by religion and then kindled to a noble enthusiasm through contemplating the boundless magnanimity of Oriental prowess. For Christianity also contains the element of boundless abstraction and freedom ; the Oriental chivalric spirit found therefore in Occidental hearts a response, which paved the way for their attaining a nobler virtue than they had previously known. Ecclesiastical orders of knighthood were instituted on a basis resembling that of the monastic fraternities. The same conventual vow of renunciation was imposed on their members – the giving up of all that was worldly. But at the same time they undertook the defence of the pilgrims : their first duty therefore was knightly bravery ; ultimately, they were also pledged to the sustenance and care of the poor and the sick. The Orders of Knighthood were divided into three : that of St. John, that of the Temple, and the Teutonic Order. These associations are essentially distinguished from the self-seeking principle of feudalism. Their members sacrificed themselves with almost suicidal bravery for a common interest. Thus these Orders transcended the circle of their immediate environment, and formed a network of fraternal coalition over the whole of Europe. But their members sank down to the level of vulgar interests, and the Orders became in the sequel a provisional institute for the nobility generally, rather than anything else. The Order of the Temple was even accused of forming a religion of its own, and of having renounced Christ in the creed which, under the influence of the Oriental Spirit, it had adopted.</p> <p>A second impulsion, having a similar origin, was that in the direction of Science. The development of Thought – the abstractly Universel – now had its commencement. Those fraternal associations themselves, having a common object, in whose service their members were enlisted, point to the fact that a general principle was beginning to be recognized, and which gradually became conscious of its power. Thought was first directed to Theology, which now became Philosophy under the name of Scholastic Divinity. For philosophy and theology have the Divine as their common object ; and although the theology of the Church was a stereotyped dogma, the impulse now arose to justify this body of doctrine in the view of Thought. “When we have arrived at Faith,” says the celebrated scholastic, Anselm, “it is a piece of negligence to stop short of convincing ourselves, by the aid of Thought, of that to which we have given credence.” But thus conditioned Thought was not free, for its material was already posited ab extra ; it was to the proof of this material that philosophy devoted its energies. But Thought suggested a variety of questions, the complete answer to which was not given directly in the symbols of the Church ; and since the Church had not decided respecting them, they were legitimate subjects of controversy. Philosophy was indeed called an ancilla fidei, for it was in subjection to that material of the Church's creed, which had been already definitely settled ; but yet it was impossible for the opposition between Thought and Belief not to manifest itself. As Europe presented the spectacle of chivalric contests generally – passages of arms and tournaments – it was now the theatre for intellectual jousting also. It is incredible to what an extent the abstract forms of Thought were developed, and what dexterity was acquired in the use of them. This intellectual tourneying for the sake of exhibiting skill, and as a diversion (for it was not the doctrines themselves, but only the forms in which they were couched that made the subject of debate), was chiefly prosecuted and brought to perfection in France. France, in fact, began at that time to be regarded as the centre of Christendom : there the scheme of the first Crusades originated, and French armies carried it out : there the Popes took refuge in their struggles with the German emperors and with the Norman princes of Naples and Sicily, and there for a time they made a continuous sojourn. – We also observe in the period subsequent to the Crusades, commencements of Art – of Painting, viz. : even during their continuance a peculiar kind of poetry had made it appearance. Spirit, unable to satisfy its cravings, created for itself by imagination fairer forms and in a calmer and freer manner than the actual world could offer.</p> <p>Chapter III. The Transition from Feudalism to Monarchy.</p> <p>The moral phenomena above mentioned, tending in the direction of a general principle, were partly of a subjective, partly of a speculative order. But we must now give particular attention to the practical political movements of the period. The advance which that period witnessed, presents a negative aspect in so far as it involves the termination of the sway of individual caprice and of the isolation of power. Its affirmative aspect is the rise of a supreme authority whose dominion embraces all – a political power properly so called, whose subjects enjoy an equality of rights, and in which the will of the individual is subordinated to that common interest which underlies the whole. This is the advance from Feudalism to Monarchy. The principle of feudal sovereignty is the outward force of individuals – princes, liege lords ; it is a force destitute of intrinsic right. The subjects of such a Constitution are vassals of a superior prince or seigneur, to whom they have stipulated duties to perform : but whether they perform these duties or not, depends upon the seigneur's being able to induce them so to do, by force of character or by grant of favors : – conversely, the recognition of those feudal claims themselves was extorted by violence in the first instance ; and the fulfilment of the corresponding duties could be secured only by the constant exercise of the power which was the sole basis of the claims in question. The monarchical principle also implies a supreme authority, but it is an authority over persons possessing no independent power to support their individual caprice ; where we have no longer caprice opposed to caprice ; for the supremacy implied in monarchy is essentially a power emanating from a political body, and is pledged to the furtherance of that equitable purpose on which the constitution of a state is based. Feudal sovereignty is a polyarchy : we see nothing but Lords and Serfs ; in Monarchy, on the contrary, there is one Lord and no Serf, for servitude is abrogated by it, and in it Right and Law are recognized ; it is the source of real freedom. Thus in monarchy the caprice of individuals is kept under, and a common gubernatorial interest established. In the suppression of those isolated powers, as also in the resistance made to that suppression, it seems doubtful whether the desire for a lawful and equitable state of things, or the wish to indulge individual caprice, is the impelling motive. Resistance to kingly authority is entitled Liberty, and is lauded as legitimate and noble when the idea of arbitrary will is associated with that authority. But by the arbitrary will of an individual exerting itself so as to subjugate a whole body of men, a community is formed ; and comparing this state of things with that in which every point is a centre of capricious violence, we find a much smaller number of points exposed to such violence. The great extent of such a sovereignty necessitates general arrangements for the purposes of organization, and those who govern in accordance with those arrangements are at the same time, in virtue of their office itself, obedient to the state : Vassals become Officers of State, whose duty it is to execute the laws by which the state is regulated. But since this monarchy is developed from feudalism, it bears in the first instance the stamp of the system from which it sprang. – individuals quit their isolated capacity and become members of Estates [or Orders of the Realm] and Corporations ; the vassals are powerful only by combination as an Order ; in contraposition to them the cities constitute Powers in virtue of their communal existence. Thus the authority of the sovereign inevitably ceases to be mere arbitrary sway. The consent of the Estates and Corporations is essential to its maintenance ; and if the prince wishes to have that consent, he must will what is just and reasonable. We now see a Constitution embracing various Orders, while Feudal rule knows no such Orders. We observe the transition from feudalism to monarchy taking place in three ways : 1. Sometimes the lord paramount gains a mastery over his independent vassals, by subjugating their individual power – thus making himself sole ruler.</p> <p>2. Sometimes the princes free themselves from the feudal relation altogether, and become the territorial lords of certain states ; or lastly</p> <p>3. The lord paramount unites the particular lordships that own him as their superior, with his own particular suzerainty, in a more peaceful way, and thus becomes master of the whole.</p> <p>These processes do not indeed present themselves in history in that pure and abstract form in which they are exhibited here : often we find more modes than one appearing contemporaneously ; but one or the other always predominates. The cardinal consideration is that the basis and essential condition of such a political formation is to be looked for in the particular nationalities in which it had its birth. Europe presents particular nations, constituting a unity in their very nature, and having the absolute tendency to form a state. All did not succeed in attaining this political unity : we have now to consider them severally in relation to the change thus introduced. First, as regards the Roman empire, the connection between Germany and Italy naturally results from the idea of that empire : the secular dominion united with the spiritual was to constitute one whole ; but this state of things was rather the object of constant struggle than one actually attained. In Germany and Italy the transition from the feudal condition to monarchy involved the entire abrogation of the former : the vassals became independent monarchs.</p> <p>Germany had always embraced a great variety of stocks : – Swabians, Bavarians, Franks, Thuringians, Saxons, Burgundians : to these must be added the Sclaves of Bohemia, Germanized Sclaves in Mecklenburg, in Brandenburg, and in a part of Saxony and Austria ; so that no such combination as took place in France was possible. Italy presented a similar state of things. The Lombards had established themselves there, while the Greeks still possessed the Exarchate and Lower Italy : the Normans too established a kingdom of their own in Lower Italy, and the Saracens maintained their ground for a time in Sicily. When the rule of the house of Hohenstaufen was terminated, barbarism got the upper hand throughout Germany ; the country being broken up into several sovereignties, in which a forceful despotism prevailed. It was the maxim of the electoral princes to raise only weak princes to the imperial throne ; they even sold the imperial dignity to foreigners. Thus the unity of the state was virtually annulled. A number of centres of power were formed, each of which was a predatory state : the legal constitution recognized by feudalism was dissolved, and gave place to undisguised violence and plunder ; and powerful princes made themselves lords of the country. After the interregnum the Count of Hapsburg was elected Emperor, and the House of Hapsburg continued to fill the imperial throne with but little interruption. These emperors were obliged to create a force of their own, as the princes would not grant them an adequate power attached to the empire. But that state of absolute anarchy was at last put an end to by associations having general aims in view. In the cities themselves we see associations of a minor order ; but now confederations of cities were formed with a common interest in the suppression of predatory violence. Of this kind was the Hanseatic League in the North, the Rhenish League consisting of cities lying along the Rhine, and the Swabian League. The aim of all these confederations was resistance to the feudal lords ; and even princes united with the cities, with a view to the subversion of the feudal condition and the restoration of a peaceful state of things throughout the country. What the state of society was under feudal sovereignty is evident from the notorious association formed for executing criminal justice : it was a private tribunal, which, under the name of the Vehmgericht, held secret sittings ; its chief seat was the northwest of Germany. A peculiar peasant association was also formed. In Germany the peasants were bondmen ; many of them took refuge in the towns, or settled down as freemen in the neighborhood of the towns (Pfahlbürger) ; but in Switzerland a peasant fraternity was established. The peasants of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden were under imperial governors ; for the Swiss governments were not the property of private possessors, but were official appointments of the Empire. These the sovereigns of the Hapsburg line wished to secure to their own house. The peasants, with club and ironstudded mace [Morgenstern], returned victorious from a contest with the haughty steel-clad nobles, armed with spear and sword, and practised in the chivalric encounters of the tournament. Another invention also tended to deprive the nobility of the ascendancy which they owed to their accoutrements – that of gunpowder. Humanity needed it, and it made its appearance forthwith. It was one of the chief instruments in freeing the world from the dominion of physical force, and placing the various orders of society on a level. With the distinction between the weapons they used, vanished also that between lords and serfs. And before gunpowder fortified places were no longer impregnable, so that strongholds and castles now lose their importance. We may indeed be led to lament the decay or the depreciation of the practical value of personal valor – the bravest, the noblest may be shot down by a cowardly wretch at safe distance in an obscure lurking-place ; but, on the other hand, gunpowder has made a rational, considerate bravery – Spiritual valor – the essential to martial success. Only through this instrumentality could that superior order of valor be called forth – that valor in which the heat of personal feeling has no share ; for the discharge of firearms is directed against a body of men – an abstract enemy, not individual combatants. The warrior goes to meet deadly peril calmly, sacrificing himself for the common weal ; and the valor of cultivated nations is characterized by the very fact, that it does not rely on the strong arm alone, but places its confidence essentially in the intelligence, the generalship, the character of its commanders ; and, as was the case among the ancients, in a firm combination and unity of spirit on the part of the forces they command.</p> <p>In Italy, as already noticed, we behold the same spectacle as in Germany – the attainment of an independent position by isolated centres of power. In that country, warfare in the hand of the Condottieri became a regular business. The towns were obliged to attend to their trading concerns, and therefore employed mercenary troops, whose leaders often became feudal lords ; Francis Sforza even made himself Duke of Milan. In Florence, the Medici, a family of merchants, rose to power. On the other hand, the larger cities of Italy reduced under their sway several smaller ones and many feudal chiefs. A Papal territory was likewise formed. There, also, a very large number of feudal lords had made themselves independent ; by degrees they all became subject to the one sovereignty of the Pope. How thoroughly equitable in the view of social morality such a subjugation was, is evident from Machiavelli's celebrated work “The Prince.” This book has often been thrown aside in disgust, as replete with the maxims of the most revolting tyranny ; but nothing worse can be urged against it than that the writer, having the profound consciousness of the necessity for the formation of a State, has here exhibited the principles on which alone states could be founded in the circumstances of the times. The chiefs who asserted an isolated independence, and the power they arrogated, must be entirely subdued ; and though we cannot reconcile with our idea of Freedom, the means which he proposes as the only efficient ones, and regards as perfectly justifiable – inasmuch as they involve the most reckless violence, all kinds of deception, assassination, and so forth – we must nevertheless confess that the feudal nobility, whose power was to be subdued, were assailable in no other way, since an indomitable contempt for principle, and an utter depravity of morals, were thoroughly engrained in them.</p> <p>In France we find the converse of that which occurred in Germany and Italy. For many centuries the Kings of France possessed only a very small domain, so that many of their vassals were more powerful than themselves : but it was a great advantage to the royal dignity in France, that the principle of hereditary monarchy was firmly established there. The consideration it enjoyed was increased by the circumstance that the corporations and cities had their rights and privileges confirmed by the king, and that the appeals to the supreme feudal tribunal – the Court of Peers, consisting of twelve members enjoying that dignity – became increasingly frequent. The king's influence was extended by his affording that protection which only the throne could give. But that which essentially secured respect for royalty, even among the powerful vassals, was the increasing personal power of the sovereign. In various ways, by inheritance, by marriage, by force of arms, etc., the Kings had come into possession of many Earldoms [Grafschaften] and several Duchies. The Dukes of Normandy had, however, become Kings of England ; and thus a formidable power confronted France, whose interior lay open to it by way of Normandy. Besides this there were powerful Duchies still remaining ; nevertheless, the King was not a mere feudal suzerain [Lehnsherr] like the German Emperors, but had become a territorial possessor [Landesherr] : he had a number of barons and cities under him, who were subject to his immediate jurisdiction ; and Louis IX succeeded in rendering appeals to the royal tribunal common throughout his kingdom. The towns attained a position of greater importance in the state. For when the king needed money, and all his usual resources – such as taxes and forced contributions of all kinds – were exhausted, he made application to the towns and entered into separate negotiations with them. It was Philip the Fair who, in the year 1302, first convoked the deputies of the towns as a Third Estate in conjunction with the clergy and the barons. All indeed that they were in the first instance concerned with was the authority of the sovereign as the power that had convoked them, and the raising of taxes as the object of their convocation ; but the States nevertheless secured an importance and weight in the kingdom, and as the natural result, an influence on legislation also. A fact which is particularly remarkable is the proclamation issued by the kings of France, giving permission to the bondsmen on the crown lands to purchase their freedom at a moderate price. In the way we have indicated the kings of France very soon attained great power ; while the flourishing state of the poetic art in the hands of the Troubadours, and the growth of the scholastic theology, whose especial centre was Paris, gave France a culture superior to that of the other European states, and which secured the respect of foreign nations.<br class='autobr' /> England, as we have already had occasion to mention, was subjugated by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy. William introduced the feudal system into it, and divided the kingdom into fiefs, which he granted almost exclusively to his Norman followers. He himself retained considerable crown possessions ; the vassals were under obligation to perform service in the field, and to aid in administering justice : the King was the guardian of all vassals under age ; they could not marry without his consent. Only by degrees did the barons and the towns attain a position of importance. It was especially in the disputes and struggles for the throne that they acquired considerable weight. When the oppressive rule and fiscal exactions of the Kings became intolerable, contentions and even war ensued : the barons compelled King John to swear to Magna Charta, the basis of English liberty, i.e., more particularly of the privileges of the nobility. Among the liberties thus secured, that which concerns the administration of justice was the chief : no Englishman was to be deprived of personal freedom, property, or life without the judicial verdict of his peers. Every one, moreover, was to be entitled to the free disposition of his property. Further, the King was to impose no taxes without the consent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, and barons. The towns, also, favored by the Kings in opposition to the barons, soon elevated themselves into a Third Estate and to representation in the Commons' House of Parliament. Yet the King was always very powerful, if he possessed strength of character : his crown estates procured for him due consideration ; in later times, however, these were gradually alienated – given away – so that the King was reduced to apply for subsidies to the parliament.<br class='autobr' /> We shall not pursue the minute and specifically historic details that concern the incorporation of principalities with states, or the dissensions and contests that accompanied such incorporations. We have only to add that the kings, when by weakening the feudal constitution, they had attained a higher degree of power, began to use that power against each other in the undisguised interest of their own dominion. Thus France and England carried on wars with each other for a century. The kings were always endeavoring to make foreign conquests ; the towns, which had the largest share of the burdens and expenses of such wars, were opposed to them, and in order to placate them the kings granted them important privileges.</p> <p>The Popes endeavored to make the disturbed state of society to which each of these changes gave rise, an occasion for the intervention- of their authority ; but the interest of the growth of states was too firmly established to allow them to make their own interest of absolute authority valid against it. Princes and peoples were indifferent to papal clamor urging them to new crusades. The Emperor Louis set to work to deduce from Aristotle, the Bible, and the Roman Law a refutation of the assumptions of the Papal See ; and the electors declared at the Diet held at Rense in 1338, and afterwards still more decidedly at the Imperial Diet held at Frankfort, that they would defend the liberties and hereditary rights of the Empire, and that to make the choice of a Roman Emperor or King valid, no papal confirmation was needed. So, at an earlier date, 1302, on occasion of a contest between Pope Boniface and Philip the Fair, the Assembly of the States convoked by the latter had offered opposition to the Pope. For states and communities had arrived at the consciousness of independent moral worth. – Various causes had united to weaken the papal authority : the Great Schism of the Church, which led men to doubt the Pope's infallibility, gave occasion to the decisions of the Councils of Constance and Basle, which assumed an authority superior to that of the Pope, and therefore deposed and appointed Popes. The numerous attempts directed against the ecclesiastical system confirmed the necessity of a reformation. Arnold of Brescia, Wickliffe, and Huss met with sympathy in contending against the dogma of the papal vicegerency of Christ, and the gross abuses that disgraced the hierarchy. These attempts were, however, only partial in their scope. On the one hand the time was not yet ripe for a more comprehensive onslaught ; on the other hand the assailants in question did not strike at the heart of the matter, but (especially the two latter) attacked the teaching of the Church chiefly with the weapons of erudition, and consequently failed to excite a deep interest among the people at large.</p> <p>But the ecclesiastical principle had a more dangerous foe in the incipient formation of political organizations, than in the antagonists above referred to. A common object, an aim intrinsically possessed of perfect moral validity,[34] presented itself to secularity in the formation of states ; and to this aim of community the will, the desire, the caprice of the individual submitted themselves. The hardness characteristic of the selfseeking quality of “Heart,” maintaining its position of isolation – the knotty heart of oak underlying the national temperament of the Germans – was broken down and mellowed by the terrible discipline of the Middle Ages. The two iron rods which were the instruments of this discipline were the Church and serfdom. The Church drove the “Heart” [Gemüth] to desperation – made Spirit pass through the severest bondage, so that the soul was no longer its own ; but it did not degrade it to Hindoo torpor, for Christianity is an intrinsically spiritual principle and, as such, has a boundless elasticity. In the same way serfdom, which made a man's body not his own, but the property of another, dragged humanity through all the barbarism of slavery and unbridled desire, and the latter was destroyed by its own violence. It was not so much from slavery as through slavery that humanity was emancipated. For barbarism, lust, injustice constitute evil : man, bound fast in its fetters, is unfit for morality and religiousness ; and it is from this intemperate and ungovernable state of volition that the discipline in question emancipated him. The Church fought the battle with the violence of rude sensuality in a temper equally wild and terroristic with that of its antagonist : it prostrated the latter by dint of the terrors of hell, and held it in perpetual subjection, in order to break down the spirit of barbarism and to tame it into repose. Theology declares that every man has this struggle to pass through, since he is by nature evil, and only by passing through a state of mental laceration arrives at the certainty of Reconciliation. But granting this, it must on the other hand be maintained, that the form of the contest is very much altered when the conditions of its commencement are different, and when that reconciliation has had an actual realization. The path of torturous discipline is in that case dispensed with (it does indeed make its appearance at a later date, but in a quite different form), for the waking up of consciousness finds man surrounded by the element of a moral state of society. The phase of negation is, indeed, a necessary element -in human development, but it has now assumed the tranquil form of education, so that all the terrible characteristics of that inward struggle vanish.</p> <p>Humanity has now attained the consciousness of a real internal harmonization of Spirit, and a good conscience in regard to actuality – to secular existence. The Human Spirit has come to stand on its own basis. In the self-consciousness to which man has thus advanced, there is no revolt against the Divine, but a manifestation of that better subjectivity, which recognizes the Divine in its own being ; which is imbued with the Good and True, and which directs its activities to general and liberal objects bearing the stamp of rationality and beauty.</p> <p>Art and Science as Putting a Period to the Middle Ages</p> <p>Humanity beholds its spiritual firmament restored to serenity. With that tranquil settling down of the world into political order which we have been contemplating, was conjoined an exaltation of Spirit to a nobler grade of humanity in a sphere involving more comprehensive and concrete interests than that with which political existence is concerned. The Sepulchre – that caput mortuum of Spirit – and the Ultramundane cease to absorb human attention. The principle of a specific and definite embodiment of the Infinite – that desideratum which urged the world to the Crusades, now developed itself in a quite different direction, viz. in secular existence asserting an independent ground : Spirit made its embodiment an outward one and found a congenial sphere in the secular life thus originated. The Church, however, maintained its former position, and retained the principle in question in its original form. Yet even in this case, that principle ceased to be limited to a bare outward existence [a sacred thing, the Host, e.g.] : it was transformed and elevated by Art. Art spiritualizes – animates the mere outward and material object of adoration with a form which expresses soul, sentiment, Spirit ; so that piety has not a bare sensuous embodiment of the Infinite to contemplate, and does not lavish its devotion on a mere Thing, but on the higher element with which the material object is imbued – that expressive form with which Spirit has invested it. – It is one thing for the mind to have before it a mere Thing – such as the Host per se, a piece of stone or wood, or a wretched daub ; – quite another thing for it to contemplate a painting, rich in thought and sentiment, or a beautiful work of sculpture, in looking at which, soul holds converse with soul and Spirit with Spirit. In the former case, Spirit is torn from its proper element, bound down to something utterly alien to it – the Sensuous, the Non-Spiritual. In the latter, on the contrary, the sensuous object is a beautiful one, and the Spiritual Form with which it is endued, gives it a soul and contains truth in itself. But on the one hand, this element of truth as thus exhibited, is manifested only in a sensuous mode, not in its appropriate form ; on the other hand, while Religion normally involves independence of that which is essentially a mere outward and material object – a mere thing – that kind of religion which is now under consideration, finds no satisfaction in being brought into connection with the Beautiful : the coarsest, ugliest, poorest representations will suit its purpose equally well – perhaps better. Accordingly real masterpieces – e.g. Raphael's Madonnas – do not enjoy distinguished veneration, or elicit a multitude of offerings : inferior pictures seem on the contrary to be especial favorites and to be made the object of the warmest devotion and the most generous liberality. Piety passes by the former for this very reason, that were it to linger in their vicinity it would feel an inward stimulus and attraction ; – an excitement of a kind which cannot but be felt to be alien, where all that is desiderated is a sense of mental bondage in which self is lost – the stupor of abject dependence. – Thus Art in its very nature transcended the principle of the Church. But as the former manifests itself only under sensuous limitations [and does not present the suspicious aspect of abstract thought], it is at first regarded as a harmless and indifferent matter. The Church, therefore, continued to follow it ; but as soon as the free Spirit in which Art originated, advanced to Thought and Science, a separation ensued.</p> <p>For Art received a further support and experienced an elevating influence as the result of the study of antiquity (the name humaniora is very expressive, for in those works of antiquity honor is done to the Human and to the development of Humanity) : through this study the West became acquainted with the true and eternal element in the activity of man. The outward occasion of this revival of science was the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Large numbers of Greeks took refuge in the West and introduced Greek literature there ; and they brought with them not only the knowledge of the Greek language but also the treasures to which that knowledge was the key. Very little of Greek literature had been preserved in the convents, and an acquaintance with the language could scarcely be said to exist at all. With the Roman literature it was otherwise ; in regard to that, ancient traditions still lingered : Virgil was thought to be a great magician (in Dante he appears as the guide in Hell and Purgatory). Through the influence of the Greeks, then, attention was again directed to the ancient Greek literature ; the West had become capable of enjoying and appreciating it ; quite other ideals and a different order of virtue from that with which mediaeval Europe was familiar were here presented ; an altogether novel standard for judging of what was to be honored, commended and imitated was set up. The Greeks in their works exhibited quite other moral commands than those with which the West was acquainted ; scholastic formalism had to make way for a body of speculative thought of a widely different complexion : Plato became known in the West, and in him a new human world presented itself. These novel ideas met with a principal organ of diffusion in the newly discovered Art of Printing, which, like the use of gunpowder, corresponds with modern character, and supplied the desideratum of the age in which it was invented, by tending to enable men to stand in an ideal connection with each other. So far as the study of the ancients manifested an interest in human deeds and virtues, the Church continued to tolerate it, not observing that in those alien works an altogether alien spirit was advancing to confront it.<br class='autobr' /> As a third leading feature demanding our notice in determining the character of the period, might be mentioned that urging of Spirit outwards – that desire on the part of man to become acquainted with his world. The chivalrous spirit of the maritime heroes of Portugal and Spain opened a new way to the East Indies and discovered America. This progressive step also, involved no transgression of the limits of ecclesiastical principles or feeling. The aim of Columbus was by no means a merely secular one : it presented also a distinctly religious aspect ; the treasures of those rich Indian lands which awaited his discovery were destined in his intention to be expended in a new Crusade, and the heathen inhabitants of the countries themselves were to be converted to Christianity. The recognition of the spherical figure of the earth led man to perceive that it offered him a definite and limited object, and navigation had been benefited by the new found instrumentality of the magnet, enabling it to be something better than mere coasting : thus technical appliances make their appearance when a need for them is experienced. These three events – the so-called Revival of Learning, the flourishing of the Fine Arts and the discovery of America and of the passage to India by the Cape – may be compared with that blush of dawn, which after long storms first betokens the return of a bright and glorious day. This day is the day of Universelity, which breaks upon the world after the long, eventful, and terrible night of the Middle Ages – a day which is distinguished by science, art and inventive impulse – that is, by the noblest and highest, and which Humanity, rendered free by Christianity and emancipated through the instrumentality of the Church, exhibits as the eternal and veritable substance of its being.</p> <p>Section III : The Modern Time.</p> <p>We have now arrived at the third period of the German World, and thus enter upon the period of Spirit conscious that it is free, inasmuch as it wills the True, the Eternal – that which is in and for itself Universel.<br class='autobr' /> In this third period also, three divisions present themselves. First, we have to consider the Reformation in itself – the allenlightening Sun, following on that blush of dawn which we observed at the termination of the mediaeval period ; next, the unfolding of that state of things which succeeded the Reformation ; and lastly, the Modern Times, dating from the end of the last century.</p> <p>Chapter I. The Reformation</p> <p>The Reformation resulted from the corruption of the Church. That corruption was not an accidental phenomenon ; it was not the mere abuse of power and dominion. A corrupt state of things is very frequently represented as an “abuse” ; it is taken for granted that the foundation was good – the system, the institution itself faultless – but that the passion, the subjective interest, in short the arbitrary volition of men has made use of that which in itself was good to further its own selfish ends, and that all that is required to be done is to remove these adventitious elements. On this showing the institute in question escapes obloquy, and the evil that disfigures it appears something foreign to it. But when accidental abuse of a good thing really occurs, it is limited to particularity. A great and general corruption affecting a body of such large and comprehensive scope as a Church, is quite another thing. – The corruption of the Church was a native growth ; the principle of that corruption is to be looked for in the fact that the specific and definite embodiment of Deity which it recognizes, is sensuous – that the external in a coarse material form, is enshrined in its inmost being. (The refining transformation which Art supplied was not sufficient.) The higher Spirit – that of the World – has already expelled the Spiritual from it ; it finds nothing to interest it in the Spiritual or in occupation with it ; thus it retains that specific and definite embodiment ; – i.e., we have the sensuous immediate subjectivity, not refined by it to Spiritual subjectivity. – Henceforth it occupies a position of inferiority to the World- Spirit ; the latter has already transcended it, for it has become capable of recognizing the Sensuous as sensuous, the merely outward as merely outward ; it has learned to occupy itself with the Finite in a finite way, and in this very activity to maintain an independent and confident position as a valid and rightful subjectivity.[35]<br class='autobr' /> The element in question which is innate in the Ecclesiastical principle only reveals itself as a corrupting one when the Church has no longer any opposition to contend with – when it has become firmly established. Then its elements are free to display their tendencies without let or hindrance. Thus it is that externality in the Church itself which becomes evil and corruption, and develops itself as a negative principle in its own bosom. – The forms which this corruption assumes are coextensive with the relations which the Church itself sustains, into which consequently this vitiating element enters. The ecclesiastical piety of the period displays the very essence of superstition – the fettering of the mind to a sensuous object, a mere Thing – in the most various forms : – slavish deference to Authority ; for Spirit, having renounced its proper nature in its most essential quality [having sacrificed its characteristic liberty to a mere sensuous object], has lost its Freedom, and is held in adamantine bondage to what is alien to itself ; – a credulity of the most absurd and childish character in regard to Miracles, for the Divine is supposed to manifest itself in a perfectly disconnected and limited way, for purely finite and particular purposes ; – lastly, lust of power, riotous debauchery, all the forms of barbarous and vulgar corruption, hypocrisy and deception – all this manifests itself in the Church ; for in fact the Sensuous in it is not subjugated and trained by the Understanding ; it has become free, but only in a rough and barbarous way. – On the other hand the virtue which the Church presents, since it is negative only in opposition to sensual appetite, is but abstractly negative ; it does not know how to exercise a moral restraint In the indulgence of the senses ; in actual life nothing is left for it but avoidance, renunciation, inactivity.</p> <p>These contrasts which the Church exhibits – of barbarous vice and lust on the one hand, and an elevation of soul that is ready to renounce all worldly things, on the other hand – became still wider in consequence of the energetic position which man is sensible of occupying in his subjective power over outward and material things in the natural world, in which he feels himself free, and so gains for himself an absolute right. – The Church whose office it is to save souls from perdition, makes this salvation itself a mere external appliance, and is now degraded so far as to perform this office in a merely external fashion. The remission of sins – the highest satisfaction which the soul craves, the certainty of its peace with God, that which concerns man's deepest and inmost nature – is offered to man in the most grossly superficial and trivial fashion – to be purchased for mere money ; while the object of this sale is to procure means for dissolute excess. One of the objects of this sale was indeed the building of St. Peter's, that magnificent chef-d'oeuvre of Christian fabrics erected in the metropolis of religion. But, as that paragon of works of art, the Athene and her temple-citadel at Athens, was built with the money of the allies and issued in the loss of both allies and power ; so the completion of this Church of St. Peter and Michael Angelo's “Last Judgment” in the Sistine Chapel, were the Doomsday and the ruin of this proud spiritual edifice.<br class='autobr' /> The time-honored and cherished sincerity of the German people is destined to effect this revolution out of the honest truth and simplicity of its heart. While the rest of the world are urging their way to India, to America – straining every nerve to gain wealth and to acquire a secular dominion which shall encompass the globe, and on which the sun shall never set – we find a simple Monk looking for that specific embodiment of Deity which Christendom had formerly sought in an earthly sepulchre of stone, rather in the deeper abyss of the Absolute Ideality of all that is sensuous and external – in the Spirit and the Heart – the heart, which, wounded unspeakably by the offer of the most trivial and superficial appliances to satisfy the cravings of that which is inmost and deepest, now detects the perversion of the absolute relation of truth in its minutest features, and pursues it to annihilation. Luther's simple doctrine is that the specific embodiment of Deity – infinite subjectivity, that is true spirituality, Christ – is in no way present and actual in an outward form, but as essentially spiritual is obtained only in being reconciled to God – in faith and spiritual enjoyment. These two words express everything. That which this doctrine desiderates, is not the recognition of a sensuous object as God, nor even of something merely conceived, and which is not actual and present, but of a Reality that is not sensuous. This abrogation of externality imports the reconstruction of all the doctrines, and the reform of all the superstition into which the Church consistently wandered, and in which its spiritual life was dissipated. This change especially, affects the doctrine of works ; for works include what may be performed under any mental conditions – not necessarily in faith, in one's own soul, but as mere external observances prescribed by authority. Faith is by no means a bare assurance respecting mere finite things – an assurance which belongs only to limited mind – as e.g., the belief that such or such a person existed and said this or that ; or that the Children of Israel passed dry-shod through the Red Sea – or that the trumpets before the walls of Jericho produced as powerful an impression as our cannons ; for although nothing of all this had been related to us, our knowledge of God would not be the less complete. In fact it is not a belief in something that is absent, past and gone, but the subjective assurance of the Eternal, of Absolute Truth, the Truth of God. Concerning this assurance, the Lutheran Church affirms that the Holy Spirit alone produces it – i.e., that it is an assurance which the individual attains, not in virtue of his particular idiosyncrasy, but of his essential being. – The Lutheran doctrine therefore involves the entire substance of Catholicism, with the exception of all that results from the element of externality – as far as the Catholic Church insists upon that externality. Luther therefore could not do otherwise than refuse to yield an iota in regard to that doctrine of the Eucharist in which the whole question is concentrated. Nor could he concede to the Reformed [Calvinistic] Church, that Christ is a mere commemoration, a mere reminiscence : in this respect his view was rather in accordance with that of the Catholic Church, viz. that Christ is an actual presence, though only in faith and in Spirit. He maintained that the Spirit of Christ really fills the human heart – that Christ therefore is not to be regarded as merely a historical person, but that man sustains an immediate relation to him in Spirit.</p> <p>While, then, the individual knows that he is filled with the Divine Spirit, all the relations that sprung from that vitiating element of externality which we examined above, are ipso facto abrogated : there is no longer a distinction between priests and laymen ; we no longer find one class in possession of the substance of the Truth, as of all the spiritual and temporal treasures of the Church ; but the heart – the emotional part of man's Spiritual nature – is recognized as that which can and ought to come into possession of the Truth ; and this subjectivity is the common property of all mankind. Each has to accomplish the work of reconciliation in his own soul. – Subjective Spirit has to receive the Spirit of Truth into itself, and give it a dwelling place there. Thus that absolute inwardness of soul which pertains to religion itself, and Freedom in the Church are both secured. Subjectivity therefore makes the objective purport of Christianity, i.e. the doctrine of the Church, its own. In the Lutheran Church the subjective feeling and the conviction of the individual is regarded as equally necessary with the objective side of Truth. Truth with Lutherans is not a finished and completed thing ; the subject himself must be imbued with Truth, surrendering his particular being in exchange for the substantial Truth, and making that Truth his own. Thus subjective Spirit gains emancipation in the Truth, abnegates its particularity and comes to itself in realizing the truth of its being. Thus Christian Freedom is actualized. If Subjectivity be placed in feeling only, without that objective side, we have the standpoint of the merely Natural Will.</p> <p>In the proclamation of these principles is unfurled the new, the latest standard round which the peoples rally – the banner of Free Spirit, independent, though finding its life in the Truth, and enjoying independence only in it. This is the banner under which we serve, and which we bear. Time, since that epoch, has had no other work to do than the formal imbuing of the world with this principle, in bringing the Reconciliation implicit [in Christianity] into objective and explicit realization.<br class='autobr' /> Culture is essentially concerned with Form ; the work of Culture is the production of the Form of Universelity, which is none other than Thought.[36] Consequently Law, Property, Social Morality, Government, Constitutions, etc., must be conformed to general principles, in order that they may accord with the idea of Free Will and be Rational. Thus only can the Spirit of Truth manifest itself in Subjective Will – in the particular shapes which the activity of the Will assumes. In virtue of that degree of intensity which Subjective Free Spirit has attained, elevating it to the form of Universelity, Objective Spirit attains manifestation. This is the sense in which we must understand the State to be based on Religion. States and Laws are nothing else than Religion manifesting itself in the relations of the actual world. This is the essence of the Reformation : Man is in his very nature destined to be free.</p> <p>At its commencement, the Reformation concerned itself only with particular aspects of the Catholic Church : Luther wished to act in union with the whole Catholic world, and expressed a desire that Councils should be convened. His theses found supporters in every country. In answer to the charge brought against Luther and the Protestants, of exaggeration – nay, even of calumnious misrepresentation in their descriptions of the corruption of the Church, we may refer to the statements of Catholics themselves, bearing upon this point, and particularly to those contained in the official documents of Ecclesiastical Councils. But Luther's onslaught, which was at first limited to particular points, was soon extended to the doctrines of the Church ; and leaving individuals, he attacked institutions at large – conventual life, the secular lordships of the bishops, etc. His writings now controverted not merely isolated dicta of the Pope and the Councils, but the very principle on which such a mode of deciding points in dispute was based – in fact, the Authority of the Church. Luther repudiated that authority, and set up in its stead the Bible and the testimony of the Human Spirit. And it is a fact of the weightiest import that the Bible has become the basis of the Christian Church : henceforth each individual enjoys the right of deriving instruction for himself from it, and of directing his conscience in accordance with it. We see a vast change in the principle by which man's religious life is guided : the whole system of Tradition, the whole fabric of the Church becomes problematical, and its authority is subverted. Luther's translation of the Bible has been of incalculable value to the German people. It has supplied them with a People's Book, such as no nation in the Catholic world can boast ; for though the latter have a vast number of minor productions in the shape of prayer books, they have no generally recognized and classical book for popular instruction. In spite of this it has been made a question in modern times whether it is judicious to place the Bible in the hands of the People. Yet the few disadvantages thus entailed are far more than counterbalanced by the incalculable benefits thence accruing : narratives, which in their external shape might be repellent to the heart and understanding, can be discriminatingly treated by the religious sense, which, holding fast the substantial truth, easily vanquishes any such difficulties. And even if the books which have pretensions to the character of People's Books, were not so superficial as they are, they would certainly fail in securing that respect which a book claiming such a title ought to inspire in individuals. But to obviate this difficulty is no easy matter, for even should a book adapted to the purpose in every other respect be produced, every country parson would have some fault to find with it, and think to better it. In France the need of such a book has been very much felt ; great premiums have been offered with a view to obtaining one, but, from the reason stated, without success. Moreover, the existence of a People's Book presupposes as its primary condition an ability to read on the part of the People ; an ability which in Catholic countries is not very commonly to be met with.</p> <p>The denial of the Authority of the Church necessarily led to a separation. The Council of Trent stereotyped the principles of Catholicism, and made the restoration of concord impossible. Leibnitz at a later time discussed with Bishop Bossuet the question of the union of the Churches ; but the Council of Trent remains the insurmountable obstacle. The Churches became hostile parties, for even in respect to secular arrangements a striking difference manifested itself. In the non-Catholic countries the conventual establishments and episcopal foundations were broken up, and the rights of the then proprietors ignored. Educational arrangements were altered ; the fasts and holy days were abolished. Thus there was also a secular reform – a change affecting the state of things outside the sphere of ecclesiastical relations : in many places a rebellion was raised against the temporal authorities. In Münster the Anabaptists expelled the Bishop and established a government of their own ; and the peasants rose en masse to emancipate themselves from the yoke of serfdom. But the world was not yet ripe for a transformation of its political condition as a consequence of ecclesiastical reformation. – The Catholic Church also was essentially influenced by the Reformation : the reins of discipline were drawn tighter, and the greatest occasions of scandal, the most crying abuses were abated. Much of the intellectual life of the age that lay outside its sphere, but with which it had previously maintained friendly relations, it now repudiated. The Church came to a dead stop – “hitherto and no farther !” It severed itself from advancing Science, from philosophy and humanistic literature ; and an occasion was soon offered of declaring its enmity to the scientific pursuits of the period. The celebrated Copernicus had discovered that the earth and the planets revolve round the sun, but the Church declared against this addition to human knowledge. Galileo, who had published a statement in the form of a dialogue of the evidence for and against the Copernican discovery (declaring indeed his own conviction of its truth), was obliged to crave pardon for the offence on his knees. The Greek literature was not made the basis of culture ; education was intrusted to the Jesuits. Thus does the Spirit of the Catholic world in general sink behind the Spirit of the Age.</p> <p>Here an important question solicits investigation : – why the Reformation was limited to certain nations, and why it did not permeate the whole Catholic world. The Reformation originated in Germany, and struck firm root only in the purely German nations ; outside of Germany itself it established itself in Scandinavia and England. But the Romanic and Sclavonic nations kept decidedly aloof from it. Even South Germany has only partially adopted the Reformation – a fact which is consistent with the mingling of elements which is the general characteristic of its nationality. In Swabia, Franconia, and the Rhine countries there were many convents and bishoprics, as also many free imperial towns ; and the reception or rejection of the Reformation very much depended on the influences which these ecclesiastical and civil bodies respectively exercised ; for we have already noticed that the Reformation was a change influencing the political life of the age as well as its religious and intellectual condition. We must further observe, that authority has much greater weight in determining men's opinions than people are inclined to believe. There are certain fundamental principles which men are in the habit of receiving on the strength of authority ; and it was mere authority which in the case of many countries decided for or against the adoption of the Reformation. In Austria, in Bavaria, in Bohemia, the Reformation had already made great progress ; and though it is commonly said that when truth has once penetrated men's souls, it cannot be rooted out again, it was indisputably stifled in the countries in question, by force of arms, by stratagem or persuasion. The Sclavonic nations were agricultural. This condition of life brings with it the relation of lord and serf. In agriculture the agency of nature predominates ; human industry and subjective activity are on the whole less brought into play in this department of labor than elsewhere. The Sclavonians therefore did not attain so quickly or readily as other nations the fundamental sense of pure individuality – the consciousness of Universelity – that which we designated above as “political power,” and could not share the benefits of dawning freedom. – But the Romanic nations also – Italy, Spain, Portugal, and in part France – were not imbued with the Reformed doctrines. Physical force perhaps did much to repress them ; yet this alone would not be sufficient to explain the fact, for when the Spirit of a Nation craves anything no force can prevent its attaining the desired object : nor can it be said that these nations were deficient in culture ; on the contrary, they were in advance of the Germans in this respect. It was rather owing to the fundamental character of these nations, that they did not adopt the Reformation. But what is this peculiarity of character which hindered the attainment of Spiritual Freedom ? We answer : the pure inwardness of the German nation was the proper soil for the emancipation of Spirit ; the Romanic Nations, on the contrary, have maintained in the very depth of their soul – in their Spiritual Consciousness – the principle of Disharmony : they are a product of the fusion of Roman and German blood, and still retain the heterogeneity thence resulting. The German cannot deny that the French, the Italians, the Spaniards, possess more determination of character – that they pursue a settled aim (even though it have a fixed idea for its object) with perfectly clear consciousness and the greatest attention – that they carry out a plan with great circumspection, and exhibit the greatest decision in regard to specific objects. The French call the Germans entiers, “entire” – i.e., stubborn ; they are also strangers to the whimsical originality of the English. The Englishman attaches his idea of liberty to the special [as opposed to the general] ; he does not trouble himself about the Understanding [logical inference], but on the contrary feels himself so much the more at liberty, the more his course of action or his license to act contravenes the Understanding – i.e., runs counter to [logical inferences or] general principles. On the other hand, among the Romanic peoples we immediately encounter that internal schism, that holding fast by an abstract principle, and as the counterpart of this, an absence of the Totality of Spirit and sentiment which we call “Heart” ; there is not that meditative introversion of the soul upon itself ; – in their inmost being they may be said to be alienated from themselves [abstract principles carry them away]. With them the inner life is a region whose depth they do not appreciate ; for it is given over “bodily” to particular [absorbing] interests, and the infinity that belongs to Spirit is not to be looked for there. Their inmost being is not their own. They leave it as an alien and indifferent matter, and are glad to have its concerns settled for them by another. That other to which they leave it is the Church. They have indeed something to do with it themselves ; but since that which they have to do is not self-originated and self-prescribed, not their very own, they are content to leave the affair to be settled in a superficial way. “Eh bien,” said Napoleon, “we shall go to mass again, and my good fellows will say : ‘That is the word of command !'” This is the leading feature in the character of these nations – the separation of the religious from the secular interest, i.e., from the special interest of individuality ; and the ground of this separation lies in their inmost soul, which has lost its independent entireness of being, its profoundest unity. Catholicism does not claim the essential direction of the Secular ; religion remains an indifferent matter on the one side, while the other side of life is dissociated from it, and occupies a sphere exclusively its own. Cultivated Frenchmen therefore feel an antipathy to Protestantism because it seems to them something pedantic, dull, minutely captious in its morality ; since it requires that Spirit and Thought should be directly engaged in religion : in attending mass and other ceremonies, on the contrary, no exertion of thought is required, but an imposing sensuous spectacle is presented to the eye, which does not make such a demand on one's attention as entirely to exclude a little chat, while yet the duties of the occasion are not neglected.</p> <p>We spoke above of the relation which the new doctrine sustained to secular life, and now we have only to exhibit that relation in detail. The development and advance of Spirit from the time of the Reformation onwards consist in this, that Spirit, having now gained the consciousness of its Freedom, through that process of mediation which takes place between man and God – that is, in the full recognition of the objective process as the existence [the positive and definite manifestation] of the Divine essence – now takes it up and follows it out in building up the edifice of secular relations. That harmony [of Objective and Subjective Will] which has resulted from the painful struggles of History, involves the recognition of the Secular as capable of being an embodiment of Truth ; whereas it had been formerly regarded as evil only, as incapable of Good – the latter being considered essentially ultramundane. It is now perceived that Morality and Justice in the State are also divine and commanded by God, and that in point of substance there is nothing higher or more sacred. One inference is that Marriage is no longer deemed less holy than Celibacy. Luther took a wife to show that he respected marriage, defying the calumnies to which he exposed himself by such a step. It was his duty to do so, as it was also to eat meat on Fridays ; to prove that such things are lawful and right, in opposition to the imagined superiority of abstinence. The Family introduces man to community – to the relation of interdependence in society ; and this union is a moral one : while on the other hand the monks, separated from the sphere of social morality, formed as it were the standing army of the Pope, as the janizaries formed the basis of the Turkish power. The marriage of the priests entails the disappearance of the outward distinction between laity and clergy. – Moreover the repudiation of work no longer earned the reputation of sanctity ; it was acknowledged to be more commendable for men to rise from a state of dependence by activity, intelligence, and industry, and make themselves independent. It is more consonant with justice that he who has money should spend it even in luxuries, than that he should give it away to idlers and beggars ; for he bestows it on an equal number of persons by so doing, and these must at any rate have worked diligently for it. Industry, crafts and trades now have their moral validity recognized, and the obstacles to their prosperity which originated with the Church, have vanished. For the Church had pronounced it a sin to lend money on interest : but the necessity of so doing led to the direct violation of her injunctions. The Lombards (a fact which accounts for the use of the term “lombard” in French to denote a loan-office), and particularly the House of Medici, advanced money to princes in every part of Europe. The third point of sanctity in the Catholic Church – blind obedience, was likewise denuded of its false pretensions. Obedience to the laws of the State, as the Rational element in volition and action, was made the principle of human conduct. In this obedience man is free, for all that is demanded is that the Particular should yield to the General. Man himself has a conscience ; consequently the subjection required of him is a free allegiance. This involves the possibility of a development of Reason and Freedom, and of their introduction into human relations ; and Reason and the Divine commands are now synonymous. The Rational no longer meets with contradiction on the part of the religious conscience ; it is permitted to develop itself in its own sphere without disturbance, without being compelled to resort to force in defending itself against an adverse power. But in the Catholic Church, that adverse element is unconditionally sanctioned. Where the Reformed doctrine prevails, princes may still be bad governors, but they are no longer sanctioned and solicited thereto by the promptings of their religious conscience. In the Catholic Church on the contrary, it is nothing singular for the conscience to be found in opposition to the laws of the State. Assassinations of sovereigns, conspiracies against the state, and the like, have often been supported and carried into execution by the priests.</p> <p>This harmony between the State and the Church has now attained immediate realization.[38] We have, as yet, no reconstruction of the State, of the system of jurisprudence, etc., for thought must first discover the essential principle of Right. The Laws of Freedom had first to be expanded to a system as deduced from an absolute principle of Right. Spirit does not assume this complete form immediately after the Reformation ; it limits itself at first to direct and simple changes, as e.g., the doing away with conventual establishments and episcopal jurisdiction, etc. The reconciliation between God and the World was limited in the first instance to an abstract form ; it was not yet expanded into a system by which the moral world could be regulated.<br class='autobr' /> In the first instance this reconciliation must take place in the individual soul, must be realized by feeling ; the individual must gain the assurance that the Spirit dwells in him – that, in the language of the Church, a brokenness of heart has been experienced, and that Divine grace has entered into the heart thus broken. By Nature man is not what he ought to be ; only through a transforming process does he arrive at truth. The general and speculative aspect of the matter is just this – that the human heart is not what it should be. It was then required of the individual that he should know what he is in himself ; that is, the teaching of the Church insisted upon man's becoming conscious that he is evil. But the individual is evil only when the Natural manifests itself in mere sensual desire – when an unrighteous will presents itself in its untamed, untrained, violent shape ; and yet it is required that such a person should know that he is depraved, and that the good Spirit dwells in him ; in fact he is required to have a direct consciousness of and to “experience” that which was presented to him as a speculative and implicit truth. The Reconciliation having, then, assumed this abstract form, men tormented themselves with a view to force upon their souls the consciousness of their sinfulness and to know themselves as evil. The most simple souls, the most innocent natures were accustomed in painful introspection to observe the most secret workings of the heart, with a view to a rigid examination of them. With this duty was conjoined that of an entirely opposite description ; it was required that man should attain the consciousness that the good Spirit dwells in him – that Divine Grace has found an entrance into his soul. In fact the important distinction between the knowledge of abstract truth and the knowledge of what has actual existence was left out of sight. Men became the victims of a tormenting uncertainty as to whether the good Spirit has an abode in them, and it was deemed indispensable that the entire process of spiritual transformation should become perceptible to the individual himself. An echo of this self-tormenting process may still be traced in much of the religious poetry of that time ; the Psalms of David which exhibit a similar character were then introduced as hymns into the ritual of Protestant Churches. Protestantism took this turn of minute and painful introspection, possessed with the conviction of the importance of the exercise, and was for a long time characterized by a self-tormenting disposition and an aspect of spiritual wretchedness ; which in the present day has induced many persons to enter the Catholic pale, that they might exchange this inward uncertainty for a formal broad certainty based on the imposing totality of the Church. A more refined order of reflection upon the character of human actions was introduced into the Catholic Church also. The Jesuits analyzed the first rudiments of volition (velleitas) with as painful minuteness as was displayed in the pious exercises of Protestantism ; but they had a science of casuistry which enabled them to discover a good reason for everything, and so get rid of the burden of guilt which this rigid investigation seemed to aggravate.</p> <p>With this was connected another remarkable phenomenon, common to the Catholic with the Protestant World. The human mind was driven into the Inward, the Abstract, and the Religious element was regarded as utterly alien to the secular. That lively consciousness of his subjective life and of the inward origin of his volition that had been awakened in man, brought with it the belief in Evil, as a vast power the sphere of whose malign dominion is the Secular. This belief presents a parallelism with the view in which the sale of Indulgences originated : for as eternal salvation could be secured for money, so by paying the price of one's salvation through a compact made with the Devil, the riches of the world and the unlimited gratification of desires and passions could be secured. Thus arose that famous legend of Faust, who in disgust at the unsatisfactory character of speculative science, is said to have plunged into the world and purchased all its glory at the expense of his salvation. Faust, if we may trust the poet, had the enjoyment of all that the world could give, in exchange for his soul's weal ; but those poor women who were called Witches were reputed to get nothing more by the bargain than the gratification of a petty revenge by making a neighbor's cow go dry or giving a child the measles. But in awarding punishment it was not the magnitude of the injury in the loss of the milk or the sickness of the child that was considered ; it was the abstract power of the Evil One in them that was attacked. The belief in this abstract, special power whose dominion is the world – in the Devil and his devices – occasioned an incalculable number of trials for witchcraft both in Catholic and Protestant countries. It was impossible to prove the guilt of the accused ; they were only suspected : it was therefore only a direct knowledge [one not mediated by proofs] on which this fury against the evil principle professed to be based. It was indeed necessary to have recourse to evidence, but the basis of these judicial processes was simply the belief that certain individuals were possessed by the power of the Evil One. This delusion raged among the nations in the sixteenth century with the fury of a pestilence. The main impulse was suspicion. The principle of suspicion assumes a similarly terrible shape during the sway of the Roman Emperors, and under Robespierre's Reign of Terror ; when mere disposition, unaccompanied by any overt act or expression, was made an object of punishment. Among the Catholics, it was the Dominicans to whom (as was the Inquisition in all its branches) the trials for witchcraft were intrusted. Father Spee, a noble Jesuit, wrote a treatise against them (he is also the author of a collection of fine poems bearing the title of “Trutznachtigall,”) giving a full exposure of the terrible character of criminal justice in proceedings of this kind. Torture, which was only to be applied once, was continued until a confession was extorted. If the accused fainted under the torture it was averred that the Devil was giving them sleep : if convulsions supervened, it was said that the Devil was laughing in them ; if they held out steadfastly, the Devil was supposed to give them power. These persecutions spread like an epidemic sickness through Italy, France, Spain and Germany. The earnest remonstrances of enlightened men, such as Spec and others, already produced a considerable effect. But it was Thomasius, a Professor of Halle, who first opposed this prevalent superstition with very decided success. The entire phenomenon is in itself most remarkable when we reflect that we have not long been quit of this frightful barbarity (even as late as the year 1780 a witch was publicly burned at Glarus in Switzerland). Among the Catholics persecution was directed against heretics as well as against witches : we might say indeed that they were placed in one category ; the unbelief of the heretics was regarded as none other than the indwelling principle of Evil – a possession similar to the other.<br class='autobr' /> Leaving this abstract form of Subjectiveness we have now to consider the secular side – the constitution of the State and the advance of Universelity – the recognition of the universel laws of Freedom. This is the second and the essential point.</p> <p>Chapter II. Influence of the Reformation on Political Development.</p> <p>In tracing the course of the political development of the period, we observe in the first place the consolidation of Monarchy, and the Monarch invested with an authority emanating from the State. The incipient stage in the rise of royal power, and the commencement of that unity which the states of Europe attained, belong to a still earlier period. While these changes were going forward, the entire body of private obligations and rights which had been handed down from the Middle Age, still retained validity. Infinitely important is this form of private rights, which the organic constituents of the executive power of the State have assumed. At their apex we find a fixed and positive principle – the exclusive right of one family to the possession of the throne, and the hereditary succession of sovereigns further restricted by the law of primogeniture. This gives the State an immovable centre. The fact that Germany was an elective empire prevented its being consolidated into one state ; and for the same reason Poland has vanished from the circle of independent states. The State must have a final decisive will : but if an individual is to be the final deciding power, he must be so in a direct and natural way, not as determined by choice and theoretic views, etc. Even among the free Greeks the oracle was the external power which decided their policy on critical occasions ; here birth is the oracle – something independent of any arbitrary volition. But the circumstance that the highest station in a monarchy is assigned to a family, seems to indicate that the sovereignty is the private property of that family. As such that sovereignty would seem to be divisible ; but since the idea of division of power is opposed to the principle of the state, the rights of the monarch and his family required to be more strictly defined. Sovereign possession is not a peculium of the individual ruler, but is consigned to the dynastic family as a trust ; and the estates of the realm possess security that that trust shall be faithfully discharged, for they have to guard the unity of the body politic. Thus, then, royal possession no longer denotes a kind of private property, private possession of estates, demesnes, jurisdiction, etc., but has become a State-property – a function pertaining to and involved with the State.</p> <p>Equally important, and connected with that just noticed, is the change of executive powers, functions, duties and rights, which naturally belong to the State, but which had become private property and private contracts or obligations – into possession conferred by the State. The rights of seigneurs and barons were annulled, and they were obliged to content themselves with official positions in the State. This transformation of the rights of vassals into official functions took place in the several kingdoms in various ways. In France, e.g., the great Barons, who were governors of provinces, who could claim such offices as a matter of right, and who like the Turkish Pashas, maintained a body of troops with the revenues thence derived – troops which they might at any moment bring into the field against the King – were reduced to the position of mere landed proprietors or court nobility, and those Pashalics became offices held under the government ; or the nobility were employed as officers – generals of the army, an army belonging to the State. In this aspect the origination of standing armies is so important an event ; for they supply the monarchy with an independent force and are as necessary for the security of the central authority against the rebellion of the subject individuals as for the defence of the state against foreign enemies. The fiscal system indeed had not as yet assumed a systematic character – the revenue being derived from customs, taxes and tolls in countless variety, besides the subsidies and contributions paid by the estates of the realm ; in return for which the right of presenting a statement of grievances was conceded to them, as is now the case in Hungary. – In Spain the spirit of chivalry had assumed a very beautiful and noble form. This chivalric spirit, this knightly dignity, degraded to a mere inactive sentiment of honor, has attained notoriety as the Spanish grandezza. The Grandees were no longer allowed to maintain troops of their own, and were also withdrawn from the command of the armies ; destitute of power they had to content themselves as private persons with an empty title. But the means by which the royal power in Spain was consolidated, was the Inquisition. This, which was established for the persecution of those who secretly adhered to Judaism, and of Moors and heretics, soon assumed a political character, being directed against the enemies of the State. Thus the Inquisition confirmed the despotic power of the King : it claimed supremacy even over bishops and archbishops, and could cite them before its tribunal. The frequent confiscation of property – one of the most customary penalties – tended to enrich the treasury of the State. Moreover, the Inquisition was a tribunal which took cognizance of mere suspicion ; and while it consequently exercised a fearful authority over the clergy, it had a peculiar support in the national pride. For every Spaniard wished to be considered Christian by descent, and this species of vanity fell in with the views and tendency of the Inquisition. Particular provinces of the Spanish monarchy, as e.g., Aragon, still retained many peculiar rights and privileges ; but the Spanish Kings from Philip II downwards proceeded to suppress them altogether. It would lead us too far to pursue in detail the process of the depression of the aristocracy in the several states of Europe. The main scope of this depressing process was, as already stated, the curtailment of the private rights of the feudal nobility, and the transformation of their seigneurial authority into an official position in connection with the State. This change was in the interest of both the King and the People. The powerful barons seemed to constitute an intermediate body charged with the defence of liberty ; but properly speaking, it was only their own privileges which they maintained against the royal power on the one hand and the citizens on the other hand. The barons of England extorted Magna Charta from the King ; but the citizens gained nothing by it, on the contrary they remained in their former condition. Polish Liberty too, meant nothing more than the freedom of the barons in contraposition to the King, the nation being reduced to a state of absolute serfdom. When liberty is mentioned, we must always be careful to observe whether it is not really the assertion of private interests which is thereby designated. For although the nobility were deprived of their sovereign power, the people were still oppressed in consequence of their absolute dependence, their serfdom, and subjection to aristocratic jurisdiction ; and they were partly declared utterly incapable of possessing property, partly subjected to a condition of bond-service which did not permit of their freely selling the products of their industry. The supreme interest of emancipation from this condition concerned the power of the State as well as the subjects – that emancipation which now gave them as citizens the character of free individuals, and determined that what was to be performed for the Commonwealth should be a matter of just allotment, not of mere chance. The aristocracy of possession maintains that possession against both – viz., against the power of the State at large and against individuals. But the aristocracy have a position assigned them, as the support of the throne, as occupied and active on behalf of the State and the common weal, and at the same time as maintaining the freedom of the citizens. This in fact is the prerogative of that class which forms the link between the Sovereign and the People – to undertake to discern and to give the first impulse to that which is intrinsically Rational and Universel ; and this recognition of and occupation with the Universel must take the place of positive personal right. This subjection to the Head of the State of that intermediate power which laid claim to positive authority was now accomplished, but this did not involve the emancipation of the subject class. This took place only at a later date, when the idea of right in and for itself arose in men's minds. Then the sovereigns relying on their respective peoples, vanquished the caste of unrighteousness ; but where they united with the barons, or where the latter maintained their freedom against the kings, those positive rights or rather wrongs continued.<br class='autobr' /> We observe also as an essential feature now first presenting itself in the political aspect of the time, a connected system of States and a relation of States to each other. They became involved in various wars : the Kings having enlarged their political authority, now turn their attention to foreign lands, insisting upon claims of all kinds. The aim and real interest of the wars of the period is invariably conquest.<br class='autobr' /> Italy especially had become such an object of desire, and was a prey to the rapacity of the French, the Spaniards, and at a later date, of the Austrians. In fact absolute disintegration and dismemberment has always been an essential feature in the national character of the inhabitants of Italy, in ancient as well as in modern times. Their stubborn individuality was exchanged for a union the result of force, under the Roman dominion ; but as soon as this bond was broken, the original character reappeared in full strength. In later times, as if finding in them a bond of union otherwise impossible – after having escaped from a selfishness of the most monstrous order and which displayed its perverse nature in crimes of every description – the Italians attained a taste for the Fine Arts : thus their civilization, the mitigation of their selfishness, reached only the Grade of Beauty, not that of Rationality – the higher unity of Thought. Consequently, even in poetry and song the Italian nature is different from ours. Improvisation characterizes the genius of the Italians ; they pour out their very souls in Art and the ecstatic enjoyment of it. Enjoying a naturel so imbued with Art, the State must be an affair of comparative indifference, a merely casual matter to the Italians. But we have to observe also that the wars in which Germany engaged, were not particularly honorable to it : it allowed Burgundy, Lorraine, Alsace, and other parts of the empire to be wrested from it. From these wars between the various political powers there arose common interests, and the object of that community of interest was the maintenance of severalty – the preservation to the several States of their independence – in fact the “balance of power.” The motive to this was of a decidedly “practical” kind, viz., the protection of the several States from conquest. The union of the States of Europe as the means of shielding individual States from the violence of the powerful – the preservation of the balance of power, had now taken the place of that general aim of the elder time, the defence of Christendom, whose centre was the Papacy. This new political motive was necessarily accompanied by a diplomatic condition – one in which all the members of the great European system, however distant, felt an interest in that which happened to any one of them. Diplomatic policy had been brought to the greatest refinement in Italy, and was thence transmitted to Europe at large. Several princes in succession seemed to threaten the stability of the balance of power in Europe. When this combination of States was just commencing, Charles V was aiming at universel monarchy ; for he was Emperor of Germany and King of Spain to boot : the Netherlands and Italy acknowledged his sway, and the whole wealth of America flowed into his coffers. With this enormous power, which, like the contingencies of fortune in the case of private property, had been accumulated by the most felicitous combinations of political dexterity – among other things by marriage, – but which was destitute of an internal and reliable bond, he was nevertheless unable to gain any advantage over France, or even over the German princes ; nay he was even compelled to a peace by Maurice of Saxony. His whole life was spent in suppressing disturbances in all parts of his empire and in conducting foreign wars. The balance of power in Europe was similarly threatened by Louis XIV. Through that depression of the grandees of his kingdom which Richelieu and after him Mazarin had accomplished, he had become an absolute sovereign. France, too, had the consciousness of its intellectual superiority in a refinement of culture surpassing anything of which the rest of Europe could boast. The pretensions of Louis were founded not on extent of dominion, (as was the case with Charles V) so much as on that culture which distinguished his people, and which at that time made its way everywhere with the language that embodied it, and was the object of universel admiration : they could therefore plead a higher justification than those of the German Emperor. But the very rock on which the vast military resources of Philip II had already foundered – the heroic resistance of the Dutch – proved fatal also to the ambitious schemes of Louis. Charles XII also presented a remarkably menacing aspect ; but his ambition had a Quixotic tinge and was less sustained by intrinsic vigor. Through all these storms the nations of Europe succeeded in maintaining their individuality and independence. An external relation in which the States of Europe had an interest in common, was that sustained to the Turks – the terrible power which threatened to overwhelm Europe from the East. The Turks of that day had still a sound and vigorous nationality, whose power was based on conquest, and which was therefore engaged in constant warfare, or at least admitted only a temporary suspension of arms. As was the case among the Franks, the conquered territories were divided among their warriors as personal, not heritable possessions ; when in later times the principle of hereditary succession was adopted, the national vigor was shattered. The flower of the Osman force, the Janizaries, were the terror of the Europeans. Their ranks were recruited from a body of Christian boys of handsome and vigorous proportions, brought together chiefly by means of annual conscriptions among the Greek subjects of the Porte, strictly educated in the Moslem faith, and exercised in arms from early youth. Without parents, without brothers or sisters, without wives, they were, like the monks, an altogether isolated and terrible corps. The Eastern European powers were obliged to make common cause against the Turks – viz. : Austria, Hungary, Venice and Poland. The battle of Lepanto saved Italy, and perhaps all Europe, from a barbarian inundation.</p> <p>An event of special importance following in the train of the Reformation was the struggle of the Protestant Church for political existence. The Protestant Church, even in its original aspect, was too intimately connected with secular interests not to occasion secular complications and political contentions respecting political possession. The subjects of Catholic princes become Protestant, have and make claims to ecclesiastical property, change the nature of the tenure, and repudiate or decline the discharge of those ecclesiastical functions to whose due performance the emoluments are attached (jura stoloe). Moreover a Catholic government is bound to be the brachium seculare of the Church ; the Inquisition, e.g., never put a man to death, but simply declared him a heretic, as a kind of jury ; he was then punished according to civil laws. Again, innumerable occasions of offence and irritation originated with processions and feasts, the carrying of the Host through the streets, withdrawals from convents, etc. Still more excitement would be felt when an Archbishop of Cologne attempted to make his archepiscopate a secular princedom for himself and his family. Their confessors made it a matter of conscience with Catholic princes to wrest estates that had been the property of the Church out of the hands of the heretics. In Germany, however, the condition of things was favorable to Protestantism in as far as the several territories which had been imperial fiefs, had become independent principalities. But in countries like Austria, the princes were indifferent to Protestants, or even hostile to them ; and in France they were not safe in the exercise of their religion except as protected by fortresses. War was the indispensable preliminary to the security of Protestants ; for the question was not one of simple conscience, but involved decisions respecting public and private property which had been taken possession of in contravention of the rights of the Church, and whose restitution it demanded. A condition of absolute mistrust supervened ; absolute, because mistrust bound up with the religious conscience was its root. The Protestant princes and towns formed at that time a feeble union, and the defensive operations they conducted were much feebler still. After they had been worsted, Maurice the Elector of Saxony, by an utterly unexpected and adventurous piece of daring, extorted a peace, itself of doubtful interpretation, and which left the real sources of embitterment altogether untouched. It was necessary to fight out the battle from the very beginning. This took place in the Thirty Years' War, in which first Denmark and then Sweden undertook the cause of freedom. The former was compelled to quit the field, but the latter under Gustavus Adolphus – that hero of the North of glorious memory – played a part which was so much the more brilliant inasmuch as it began to wage war with the vast force of the Catholics, alone – without the help of the Protestant states of the Empire. The powers of Europe, with a few exceptions, precipitate themselves on Germany – flowing back towards it as to the fountain from which they had originally issued, and where now the right of inwardness that has come to manifest itself in the sphere of religion, and that of internal independence and severalty is to be fought out. The struggle ends without an Ideal result – without having attained the consciousness of a principle as an intellectual concept – in the exhaustion of all parties, in a scene of utter desolation, where all the contending forces have been wrecked ; it issues in letting parties simply take their course and maintain their existence on the basis of external power. The issue is in fact exclusively of a political nature.</p> <p>In England also, war was indispensable to the establishment of the Protestant Church : the struggle was in this case directed against the sovereigns, who were secretly attached to Catholicism because they found the principle of absolute sway confirmed by its doctrines. The fanaticized people rebelled against the assumption of absolute sovereign power – importing that Kings are responsible to God alone (i.e., to the Father Confessor) – and in opposition to Catholic externality, unfurled the banner of extreme subjectivity in Puritanism – a principle which, developing itself in the real world, presents an aspect partly of enthusiastic elevation, partly of ridiculous incongruity. The enthusiasts of England, like those of Münster, were for having the State governed directly by the fear of God ; the soldiery sharing the same fanatical views prayed while they fought for the cause they had espoused. But a military leader now has the physical force of the country and consequently the government in his hands : for in the State there must be government, and Cromwell knew what governing is. He, therefore, made himself ruler, and sent that praying parliament about their business. With his death however his right to authority vanished also, and the old dynasty regained possession of the throne. Catholicism, we may observe, is commended to the support of princes as promoting the security of their government – a position supposed to be particularly manifest if the Inquisition be connected with the government ; the former constituting the bulwark of the latter. But such a security is based on a slavish religious obedience, and is limited to those grades of human development in which the political constitution and the whole legal system still rest on the basis of actual positive possession ; but if the constitution and laws are to be founded on a veritable eternal Right, then security is to be found only in the Protestant religion, in whose principle Rational Subjective Freedom also attains development. The Dutch too offered a vigorous opposition to the Catholic principle as bound up with the Spanish sovereignty. Belgium was still attached to the Catholic religion and remained subject to Spain : on the contrary, the northern part of the Netherlands – Holland – stood its ground with heroic valor against its oppressors. The trading class, the guilds and companies of marksmen formed a militia whose heroic courage was more than a match for the then famous Spanish infantry. Just as the Swiss peasants had resisted the chivalry of Austria, so here the trading cities held out against disciplined troops. During this struggle on the Continent itself, the Dutch fitted out fleets and deprived the Spaniards of part of their colonial possessions, from which all their wealth was derived. As independence was secured to Holland in its holding to the Protestant principle, so that of Poland was lost through its endeavor to suppress that principle in the case of dissidents. Through the Peace of Westphalia the Protestant Church had been acknowledged as an independent one – to the great confusion and humiliation of Catholicism. This peace has often passed for the palladium of Germany, as having established its political constitution. But this constitution was in fact a confirmation of the particular rights of the countries into which Germany had been broken up. It involves no thought, no conception of the proper aim of a state. We should consult “Hippolytus à lapide” (a book which, written before the conclusion of the peace, had a great influence on the condition of the Empire) if we would become acquainted with the character of that German freedom of which so much is made. In the peace in question the establishment of a complete particularity, the determination of all relations on the principle of private right is the object manifestly contemplated – a constituted anarchy, such as the world had never before seen ; – i.e., the position that an Empire is properly a unity, a totality, a state, while yet all relations are determined so exclusively on the principle of private right that the privilege of all the constituent parts of that Empire to act for themselves contrarily to the interest of the whole, or to neglect that which its interest demands and which is even required by law – is guaranteed and secured by the most inviolable sanctions. Immediately after this settlement, it was shown what the German Empire was as a state in relation to other states : it waged ignominious wars with the Turks, for deliverance from whom Vienna was indebted to Poland. Still more ignominious was its relation to France, which took possession in time of peace of free cities, the bulwarks of Germany, and of flourishing provinces, and retained them undisturbed.<br class='autobr' /> This constitution, which completely terminated the career of Germany as an Empire, was chiefly the work of Richelieu, by whose assistance – Romish Cardinal though he was – religious freedom in Germany was preserved. Richelieu, with a view to further the interests of the State whose affairs he superintended, adopted the exact opposite of that policy which he promoted in the case of its enemies ; for he reduced the latter to political impotence by ratifying the political independence of the several parts of the Empire, while at home he destroyed the independence of the Protestant party. His fate has consequently resembled that of many great statesmen, inasmuch as he has been cursed by his countrymen, while his enemies have looked upon the work by which he ruined them as the most sacred goal of their desires – the consummation of their rights and liberties. The result of the struggle therefore was the forcibly achieved and now politically ratified coexistence of religious parties, forming political communities whose relations are determined according to prescriptive principles of civil or [rather, for such their true nature was] of private right.</p> <p>The Protestant Church increased and so perfected the stability of its political existence by the fact that one of the states which had adopted the principles of the Reformation raised itself to the position of an independent European power. This power was destined to start into a new life with Protestantism : Prussia, viz., which making its appearance at the end of the seventeenth century, was indebted, if not for origination, yet certainly for the consolidation of its strength, to Frederick the Great ; and the Seven Years' War was the struggle by which that consolidation was accomplished. Frederick II demonstrated the independent vigor of his power by resisting that of almost all Europe – the union of its leading states. He appeared as the hero of Protestantism, and that not individually merely, like Gustavus Adolphus, but as the ruler of a state. The Seven Years' War was indeed in itself not a war of religion ; but it was so in view of its ultimate issues, and in the disposition of the soldiers as well as of the potentates under whose banner they fought. The Pope consecrated the sword of Field-Marshal Daun, and the chief object which the Allied Powers proposed to themselves was the crushing of Prussia as the bulwark of the Protestant Church. But Frederick the Great not only made Prussia one of the great powers of Europe as a Protestant power, but was also a philosophical King – an altogether peculiar and unique phenomenon in modern times.<br class='autobr' /> There had been English Kings who were subtle theologians, contending for the principle of absolutism : Frederick on the contrary took up the Protestant principle in its secular aspect ; and though he was by no means favorable to religious controversies, and did not side with one party or the other, he had the consciousness of Universelity, which is the profoundest depth to which Spirit can attain, and is Thought conscious of its own inherent power.</p> <p>Chapter III. The Éclaircissement and Revolution[39]</p> <p>Protestantism had introduced the principle of Subjectivity, importing religious emancipation and inward harmony, but accompanying this with the belief in Subjectivity as Evil, and in a power [adverse to man's highest interests] whose embodiment is “the World.” Within the Catholic pale also, the casuistry of the Jesuits brought into vogue interminable investigations, as tedious and wire-drawn as those in which the scholastic theology delighted, respecting the subjective spring of the Will and the motives that affect it. This Dialectic, which unsettles all particular judgments and opinions, transmuting the Evil into Good and Good into Evil, left at last nothing remaining but the mere action of subjectivity itself, the Abstractum of Spirit – Thought. Thought contemplates everything under the form of Universelity, and is consequently the impulsion towards and production of the Universel. In that elder scholastic theology the real subject-matter of investigation – the doctrine of the Church – remained an ultramundane affair ; in the Protestant theology also Spirit still sustained a relation to the Ultramundane ; for on the one side we have the will of the individual – the Spirit of Man – I, myself, and on the other the Grace of God, the Holy Ghost ; and so in the Wicked, the Devil. But in Thought, Self moves within the limits of its own sphere ; that with which it is occupied – its objects are as absolutely present to it [as they were distinct and separate in the intellectual grade above mentioned] ; for in thinking I must elevate the object to Universelity.[40] This is utter and absolute Freedom, for the pure Ego, like pure Light, is with itself alone [is not involved with any alien principle] ; thus that which is diverse from itself, sensuous or spiritual, no longer presents an object of dread, for in contemplating such diversity it is inwardly free and can freely confront it. A practical interest makes use of, consumes the objects offered to it : a theoretical interest calmly contemplates them, assured that in themselves they present no alien element. – Consequently, the ne plus ultra of Inwardness, of Subjectiveness, is Thought. Man is not free, when he is not thinking ; for except when thus engaged he sustains a relation to the world around him as to another, an alien form of being. This comprehension – the penetration of the Ego into and beyond other forms of being with the most profound self-certainty [the identity of subjective and objective Reason being recognized], directly involves the harmonization of Being : for it must be observed that the unity of Thought with its Object is already implicitly present [i.e., in the fundamental constitution of the Universe], for Reason is the substantial basis of Consciousness as well as of the External and Natural. Thus that which presents itself as the Object of Thought is no longer an absolutely distinct form of existence [ein Jenseits], not of an alien and grossly substantial [as opposed to intelligible] nature.<br class='autobr' /> Thought is the grade to which Spirit has now advanced. It involves the Harmony of Being in its purest essence, challenging the external world to exhibit the same Reason which Subject [the Ego] possesses. Spirit perceives that Nature – the World – must also be an embodiment of Reason, for God created it on principles of Reason. An interest in the contemplation and comprehension of the present world became universel. Nature embodies Universelity, inasmuch as it is nothing other than Sorts, Genera, Power, Gravitation, etc., phenomenally presented. Thus Experimental Science became the science of the World ; for experimental science involves on the one hand the observation of phenomena, on the other hand also the discovery of the Law, the essential being, the hidden force that causes those phenomena – thus reducing the data supplied by observation to their simple principles. Intellectual consciousness was first extricated from that sophistry of thought, which unsettles everything, by Descartes. As it was the purely German nations among whom the principle of Spirit first manifested itself, so it was by the Romanic nations that the abstract idea (to which the character assigned them above – viz., that of internal schism, more readily conducted them) was first comprehended. Experimental science therefore very soon made its way among them (in common with the Protestant English), but especially among the Italians. It seemed to men as if God had but just created the moon and stars, plants and animals, as if the laws of the universe were now established for the first time ; for only then did they feel a real interest in the universe, when they recognized their own Reason in the Reason which pervades it. The human eye became clear, perception quick, thought active and interpretative. The discovery of the laws of Nature enabled men to contend against the monstrous superstition of the time, as also against all Concepts of mighty alien powers which magic alone could conquer. The assertion was even ventured on, and that by Catholics not less than by Protestants, that the External [and Material], with which the Church insisted upon associating superhuman virtue, was external and material, and nothing more – that the Host was simply dough, the relics of the Saints mere bones. The independent authority of Subjectivity was maintained against belief founded on authority, and the Laws of Nature were recognized as the only bond connecting phenomena with phenomena. Thus all miracles were disallowed : for Nature is a system of known and recognized Laws ; Man is at home in it, and that only passes for truth in which he finds himself at home ; he is free through the acquaintance he has gained with Nature. Nor was thought less vigorously directed to the Spiritual side of things : Right and [Social] Morality came to be looked upon as having their foundation in the actual present Will of man, whereas formerly it was referred only to the command of God enjoined ab extra, written in the Old and New Testament, or appearing in the form of particular Right [as opposed to that based on general principles] in old parchments, as privilegia, or in international compacts. What the nations acknowledge as international Right was deduced empirically from observation (as in the work of Grotius) ; then the source of the existing civil and political law was looked for, after Cicero's fashion, in those instincts of men which Nature has planted in their hearts – e.g., the social instinct ; next the principle of security for the person and property of the citizens, and of the advantage of the commonwealth – that which belongs to the class of “reasons of State.” On these principles private rights were on the one hand despotically contravened, but on the other hand such contravention was the instrument of carrying out the general objects of the State in opposition to mere positive or prescriptive claims. Frederick II may be mentioned as the ruler who inaugurated the new epoch in the sphere of practical life – that epoch in which practical political interest attains Universelity [is recognized as an abstract principle], and receives an absolute sanction. Frederick II merits especial notice as having comprehended the general object of the State, and as having been the first sovereign who kept the general interest of the State steadily in view, ceasing to pay any respect to particular interests when they stood in the way of the common weal. His immortal work is a domestic code – the Prussian municipal law. How the head of a household energetically provides and governs with a view to the weal of that household and of his dependents – of this he has. given a unique specimen.<br class='autobr' /> These general conceptions, deduced from actual and present consciousness – the Laws of Nature and the substance of what is right and good, have received the name of Reason. The recognition of the validity of these laws was designated by the term Éclaircissement (Aufklärung). From France it passed over into Germany, and created a new world of ideas. The absolute criterion – taking the place of all authority based on religious belief and positive laws of Right (especially political Right) – is the verdict passed by Spirit itself on the character of that which is to be believed or obeyed. After a free investigation in open day, Luther had secured to mankind Spiritual Freedom and the Reconciliation [of the Objective and Subjective] in the concrete : he triumphantly established the position that man's eternal destiny [his spiritual and moral position] must be wrought out in himself [cannot be an opus operatum, a work performed for him]. But the import of that which is to take place in him – what truth is to become vital in him, was taken for granted by Luther as something already given, something revealed by religion. Now, the principle was set up that this import must be capable of actual investigation – something of which I [in this modern time] can gain an inward conviction – and that to this basis of inward demonstration every dogma must be referred.</p> <p>This principle of thought makes its appearance in the first instance in a general and abstract form ; and is based on the axiom of Contradiction and Identity.[41] The results of thought are thus posited as finite, and the eclaircissement utterly banished and extirpated all that was speculative from things human and divine. Although it is of incalculable importance that the multiform complex of things should be reduced to its simplest conditions, and brought into the form of Universelity, yet this still abstract principle does not satisfy the living Spirit, the concrete human soul.</p> <p>This formally absolute principle brings us to the last stage in History, our world, our own time.</p> <p>Secular life is the positive and definite embodiment of the Spiritual Kingdom – the Kingdom of the Will manifesting itself in outward existence. Mere impulses are also forms in which the inner life realizes itself ; but these are transient and disconnected ; they are the ever-changing applications of volition. But that which is just and moral belongs to the essential, independent, intrinsically universel Will ; and if we would know what Right really is, we must abstract from inclination, impulse and desire as the particular ; i.e., we must know what the Will is in itself. For benevolent, charitable, social impulses are nothing more than impulses – to which others of a different class are opposed. What the Will is in itself can be known only when these specific and contradictory forms of volition have been eliminated. Then Will appears as Will, in its abstract essence. The Will is Free only when it does not will anything alien, extrinsic, foreign to itself (for as long as it does so, it is dependent), but wills itself alone – wills the Will. This is absolute Will – the volition to be free. Will making itself its own object is the basis of all Right and Obligation – consequently of all statutory determinations of Right, categorical imperatives, and enjoined obligations. The Freedom of the Will per se, is the principle and substantial basis of all Right – is itself absolute, inherently eternal Right, and the Supreme Right in comparison with other specific Rights ; nay, it is even that by which Man becomes Man, and is therefore the fundamental principle of Spirit. But the next question is : How does Will assume a definite form ? For in willing itself, it is nothing but an identical reference to itself ; but, in point of fact, it wills something specific : there are, we know, distinct and special Duties and Rights. A particular application, a definite form of Will, is desiderated ; for pure Will is its own object, its own application, which, as far as this showing goes, is no object, no application. In fact, in this form it is nothing more than formal Will. But the metaphysical process by which this abstract Will develops itself, so as to attain a definite form of Freedom, and how Rights and Duties are evolved therefrom, this is not the place to discuss.[42] It may however be remarked that the same principle obtained speculative recognition in Germany, in the Kantian Philosophy. According to it the simple unity of Self-consciousness, the Ego, constitutes the absolutely independent Freedom, and is the fountain of all general conceptions – i.e., all conceptions elaborated by Thought – Theoretical Reason ; and likewise of the highest of all practical determinations [or conceptions] – Practical Reason, as free and pure Will ; and Rationality of Will is none other than the maintaining one's self in pure Freedom – willing this and this alone – Right purely for the sake of Right, Duty purely for the sake of Duty. Among the Germans this view assumed no other form than that of tranquil theory ; but the French wished to give it practical effect. Two questions, therefore, suggest themselves : Why did this principle of Freedom remain merely formal ?[43] and why did the French alone, and not the Germans, set about realizing it ? With the formal principle more significant categories were indeed connected : one of the chief of these (for instance) was Society, and that which is advantageous for Society : but the aim of Society is itself political – that of the State (vid. “Droits de l'homme et du citoyen,” 1791) – the conservation of Natural Rights ; but Natural Right is Freedom, and, as further determined, it is Equality of Rights before the Law. A direct connection is manifest here, for Equality, Parity, is the result of the comparison of many ;[44] the “Many” in question being human beings, whose essential characteristic is the same, viz., Freedom. That principle remains formal, because it originated with abstract Thought – with the Understanding, which is primarily the selfconsciousness of Pure Reason, and as direct [unreflected, undeveloped] is abstract. As yet, nothing further is developed from it, for it still maintains an adverse position to Religion, i.e. to the concrete absolute substance of the Universe. As respects the second question – why the French immediately passed over from the theoretical to the practical, while the Germans contented themselves with theoretical abstraction, it might be said : the French are hot-headed [ils ont la tête près du bonnet] ; but this is a superficial solution : the fact is that the formal principle of philosophy in Germany encounters a concrete real World in which Spirit finds inward satisfaction and in which conscience is at rest. For on the one hand it was the Protestant World itself which advanced so far in Thought as to realize the absolute culmination of Self-Consciousness ; on the other hand, Protestantism enjoys, with respect to the moral and legal relations of the real world, a tranquil confidence in the [Honorable] Disposition of men – a sentiment, which, [in the Protestant World,] constituting one and the same thing with Religion, is the fountain of all the equitable arrangements that prevail with regard to private right and the constitution of the State. In Germany the éclaircissement was conducted in the interest of theology : in France it immediately took up a position of hostility to the Church. In Germany the entire compass of secular relations had already undergone a change for the better ; those pernicious ecclesiastical institutes of celibacy, voluntary pauperism, and laziness, had been already done away with ; there was no dead weight of enormous wealth attached to the Church, and no constraint put upon Morality – a constraint which is the source and occasion of vices ; there was not that unspeakably hurtful form of iniquity which arises from the interference of spiritual power with secular law, nor that other of the Divine Right of Kings, i.e. the doctrine that the arbitrary will of princes, in virtue of their being “the Lord's Anointed,” is divine and holy : on the contrary their will is regarded as deserving of respect only so far as in association with reason, it wisely contemplates Right, Justice, and the weal of the community. The principle of Thought, therefore, had been so far conciliated already ; moreover the Protestant World had a conviction that in the Harmonization which had previously been evolved [in the sphere of Religion] the principle which would result in a further development of equity in the political sphere was already present.</p> <p>Consciousness that has received an abstract culture, and whose sphere is the Understanding [Verstand] can be indifferent to Religion, but Religion is the general form in which Truth exists for non-abstract consciousness. And the Protestant Religion does not admit of two kinds of consciences, while in the Catholic world the Holy stands on the one side and on the other side abstraction opposed to Religion, that is to its superstition and its truth. That formal, individual Will is in virtue of the abstract position just mentioned made the basis of political theories ; Right in Society is that which the Law wills, and the Will in question appears as an isolated individual will ; thus the State, as an aggregate of many individuals, is not an independently substantial Unity, and the truth and essence of Right in and for itself – to which the will of its individual members ought to be conformed in order to be true, free Will ; but the volitional atoms [the individual wills of the members of the State] are made the starting point, and each will is represented as absolute. An intellectual principle was thus discovered to serve as a basis for the State – one which does not, like previous principles, belong to the sphere of opinion, such as the social impulse, the desire of security for property, etc., nor owe its origin to the religious sentiment, as does that of the Divine appointment of the governing power – but the principle of Certainty, which is identity with my self-consciousness, stopping short however of that of Truth, which needs to be distinguished from it. This is a vast discovery in regard to the profoundest depths of being and Freedom. The consciousness of the Spiritual is now the essential basis of the political fabric, and Philosophy has thereby become dominant. It has been said, that the French Revolution resulted from Philosophy, and it is not without reason that Philosophy has been called “Weltweisheit” [World Wisdom ;] for it is not only Truth in and for itself, as the pure essence of things, but also Truth in its living form as exhibited in the affairs of the world. We should not, therefore, contradict the assertion that the Revolution received its first impulse from Philosophy. But this philosophy is in the first instance only abstract Thought, not the concrete comprehension of absolute Truth – intellectual positions between which there is an immeasurable chasm.</p> <p>The principle of the Freedom of the Will, therefore, asserted itself against existing Right. Before the French Revolution, it must be allowed, the power of the grandees had been diminished by Richelieu, and they had been deprived of privileges ; but, like the clergy, they retained all the prerogatives which gave them an advantage over the lower class. The political condition of France at that time presents nothing but a confused mass of privileges altogether contravening Thought and Reason – an utterly irrational state of things, and one with which the greatest corruption of morals, of Spirit was associated – an empire characterized by Destitution of Right, and which, when its real state begins to be recognized, becomes shameless destitution of Right. The fearfully heavy burdens that pressed upon the people, the embarrassment of the government to procure for the Court the means of supporting luxury and extravagance, gave the first impulse to discontent. The new Spirit began to agitate men's minds : oppression drove men to investigation. It was perceived that the sums extorted from the people were not expended in furthering the objects of the State, but were lavished in the most unreasonable fashion. The entire political system appeared one mass of injustice. The change was necessarily violent, because the work of transformation was not undertaken by the government. And the reason why the government did not undertake it was that the Court, the Clergy, the Nobility, the Parliaments themselves, were unwilling to surrender the privileges they possessed, either for the sake of expediency or that of abstract Right ; moreover, because the government as the concrete centre of the power of the State, could not adopt as its principle abstract individual wills, and reconstruct the State on this basis ; lastly, because it was Catholic, and therefore the Idea of Freedom – Reason embodied in Laws – did not pass for the final absolute obligation, since the Holy and the religious conscience are separated from them. The conception, the idea of Right asserted its authority all at once, and the old framework of injustice could offer no resistance to its onslaught. A constitution, therefore, was established in harmony with the conception of Right, and on this foundation all future legislation was to be based. Never since the sun had stood in the firmament and the planets revolved around him had it been perceived that man's existence centres in his head, i.e., in Thought, inspired by which he builds up the world of reality. Anaxagoras had been the first to say that nous ; governs the World ; but not until now had man advanced to the recognition of the principle that Thought ought to govern spiritual reality, This was accordingly a glorious mental dawn. All thinking beings shared in the jubilation of this epoch. Emotions of a lofty character stirred men's minds at that time ; a spiritual enthusiasm thrilled through the world, as if the reconciliation between the Divine and the Secular was now first accomplished.<br class='autobr' /> The two following points must now occupy our attention : 1st. The course which the Revolution in France took ; 2d. How that Revolution became World-Historical.</p> <p>1. Freedom presents two aspects : the one concerns its substance and purport – its objectivity – the thing itself – [that which is performed as a free act] ; the other relates to the Form of Freedom, involving the consciousness of his activity on the part of the individual ; for Freedom demands that the individual recognize himself in such acts, that they should be veritably his, it being his interest that the result in question should be attained. The three elements and powers of the State in actual working must be contemplated according to the above analysis, their examination in detail being referred to the Lectures on the Philosophy of Right.</p> <p>(1.) Laws of Rationality – of intrinsic Right – Objective or Real Freedom : to this category belong Freedom of Property and Freedom of Person. Those relics of that condition of servitude which the feudal relation had introduced are hereby swept away, and all those fiscal ordinances which were the bequest of the feudal law – its tithes and dues, are abrogated. Real [practical] Liberty requires moreover freedom in regard to trades and professions – the permission to every one to use his abilities without restriction – and the free admission to all offices of State. This is a summary of the elements of real Freedom, and which are not based on feeling – for feeling allows of the continuance even of serfdom and slavery – but on the thought and self- consciousness of man recognizing the spiritual character of his existence.</p> <p>(2.) But the agency which gives the laws practical effect is the Government generally. Government is primarily the formal execution of the laws and the maintenance of their authority : in respect to foreign relations it prosecutes the interest of the State ; that is, it assists the independence of the nation as an individuality against other nations ; lastly, it has to provide for the internal weal of the State and all its classes – what is called administration : for it is not enough that the citizen is allowed to pursue a trade or calling, it must also be a source of gain to him ; it is not enough that men are permitted to use their powers, they must also find an opportunity of applying them to purpose. Thus the State involves a body of abstract principles and a practical application of them. This application must be the work of a subjective will, a will which resolves and decides. Legislation itself – the invention and positive enactment of these statutory arrangements, is an application of such general principles. The next step, then, consists in [specific] determination and execution. Here then the question presents itself : what is the decisive will to be ? The ultimate decision is the prerogative of the monarch : but if the State is based on Liberty, the many wills of individuals also desire to have a share in political decisions. But the Many are All ; and it seems but a poor expedient, rather a monstrous inconsistency, to allow only a few to take part in those decisions, since each wishes that his volition should have a share in determining what is to be law for him. The Few assume to be the deputies, but they are often only the despoilers of the Many. Nor is the sway of the Majority over the Minority a less palpable inconsistency.</p> <p>(3.) This collision of subjective wills leads therefore to the consideration of a third point, that of Disposition – an ex animo acquiescence in the laws ; not the mere customary observance of them, but the cordial recognition of laws and the Constitution as in principle fixed and immutable, and of the supreme obligation of individuals to subject their particular wills to them. There may be various opinions and views respecting laws, constitution and government, but there must be a disposition on the part of the citizens to regard all these opinions as subordinate to the substantial interest of the State, and to insist upon them no further than that interest will allow ; moreover nothing must be considered higher and more sacred than good will towards the State ; or, if Religion be looked upon as higher and more sacred, it must involve nothing really alien or opposed to the Constitution. It is, indeed, regarded as a maxim of the profoundest wisdom entirely to separate the laws and constitution of the State from Religion, since bigotry and hypocrisy are to be feared as the results of a State Religion. But although the aspects of Religion and the State are different, they are radically one ; and the laws find their highest confirmation in Religion.</p> <p>Here it must be frankly stated, that with the Catholic Religion no rational constitution is possible ; for Government and People must reciprocate that final guarantee of Disposition, and can have it only in a Religion that is not opposed to a rational political constitution.</p> <p>Plato in his Republic makes everything depend upon the Government, and makes Disposition the principle of the State ; on which account he lays the chief stress on Education. The modern theory is diametrically opposed to this, referring everything to the individual will. But here we have no guarantee that the will in question has that right disposition which is essential to the stability of the State.</p> <p>In view then of these leading considerations we have to trace the course of the French Revolution and the remodelling of the State in accordance with the Idea of Right. In the first instance purely abstract philosophical principles were set up : Disposition and Religion were not taken into account. The first Constitutional form of Government in France was one which recognized Royalty ; the monarch was to stand at the head of the State, and on him in conjunction with his Ministers was to devolve the executive power ; the legislative body on the other hand were to make the laws. But this constitution involved from the very first an internal contradiction ; for the legislature absorbed the whole power of the administration : the budget, affairs of war and peace, and the levying of the armed force were in the hands of the Legislative Chamber. Everything was brought under the head of Law. The budget however is in its nature something diverse from law, for it is annually renewed, and the power to which it properly belongs is that of the Government. With this moreover is connected the indirect nomination of the ministry and officers of state, etc. The government was thus transferred to the Legislative Chamber, as in England to the Parliament. This constitution was also vitiated by the existence of absolute mistrust ; the dynasty lay under suspicion, because it had lost the power it formerly enjoyed, and the priests refused the oath. Neither government nor constitution could be maintained on this footing, and the ruin of both was the result. A government of some kind however is always in existence. The question presents itself then, Whence did it emanate ? Theoretically, it proceeded from the people ; really and truly from the National Convention and its Committees. The forces now dominant are the abstract principles – Freedom, and, as it exists within the limits of the Subjective Will – Virtue. This Virtue has now to conduct the government in opposition to the Many, whom their corruption and attachment to old interests, or a liberty that has degenerated into license, and the violence of their passions, render unfaithful to virtue. Virtue is here a simple abstract principle and distinguishes the citizens into two classes only – those who are favorably disposed and those who are not. But disposition can only be recognized and judged of by disposition. Suspicion therefore is in the ascendant ; but virtue, as soon as it becomes liable to suspicion, is already condemned. Suspicion attained a terrible power and brought to the scaffold the Monarch, whose subjective will was in fact the religious conscience of a Catholic. Robespierre set up the principle of Virtue as supreme, and it may be said that with this man Virtue was an earnest matter. Virtue and Terror are the order of the day ; for Subjective Virtue, whose sway is based on disposition only, brings with it the most fearful tyranny. It exercises its power without legal formalities, and the punishment it inflicts is equally simple – Death. This tyranny could not last ; for all inclinations, all interests, reason itself revolted against this terribly consistent Liberty, which in its concentrated intensity exhibited so fanatical a shape. An organized government is introduced, analogous to the one that had been displaced ; only that its chief and monarch is now a mutable Directory of Five, who may form a moral, but have not an individual unity ; under them also suspicion was in the ascendant, and the government was in the hands of the legislative assemblies ; this constitution therefore experienced the same fate as its predecessor, for it had proved to itself the absolute necessity of a governmental power. Napoleon restored it as a military power, and followed up this step by establishing himself as an individual will at the head of the State : he knew how to rule, and soon settled the internal affairs of France. The avocats, idealogues and abstract-principle men who ventured to show themselves he sent “to the right about,” and the sway of mistrust was exchanged for that of respect and fear. He then, with the vast might of his character turned his attention to foreign relations, subjected all Europe, and diffused his liberal institutions in every quarter. Greater victories were never gained, expeditions displaying greater genius were never conducted : but never was the powerlessness of Victory exhibited in a clearer light than then. The disposition of the peoples, i.e. their religious disposition and that of their nationality, ultimately precipitated this colossus ; and in France constitutional monarchy, with the “Charte” as its basis, was restored. But here again the antithesis of Disposition [good feeling] and Mistrust made its appearance. The French stood in a mendacious position to each other, when they issued addresses full of devotion and love to the monarchy, and loading it with benediction. A fifteen years' farce was played. For although the Charte was the standard under which all were enrolled, and though both parties had sworn to it, yet on the one side the ruling disposition was a Catholic one, which regarded it as a matter of conscience to destroy the existing institutions. Another breach, therefore, took place, and the Government was overturned. At length, after forty years of war and confusion indescribable, a weary heart might fain congratulate itself on seeing a termination and tranquillization of all these disturbances. But although one main point is set at rest, there remains on the one hand that rupture which the Catholic principle inevitably occasions, on the other hand that which has to do with men's subjective will. In regard to the latter, the main feature of incompatibility still presents itself, in the requirement that the ideal general will should also be the empirically general – i.e. that the units of the State, in their individual capacity, should rule, or at any rate take part in the government. Not satisfied with the establishment of rational rights, with freedom of person and property, with the existence of a political organization in which are to be found various circles of civil life each having its own functions to perform, and with that influence over the people which is exercised by the intelligent members of the community, and the confidence that is felt in them, “Liberalism” sets up in opposition to all this the atomistic principle, that which insists upon the sway of individual wills ; maintaining that all government should emanate from their express power, and have their express sanction. Asserting this formal side of Freedom – this abstraction – the party in question allows no political organization to be firmly established. The particular arrangements of the government are forthwith opposed by the advocates of Liberty as the mandates of a particular will, and branded as displays of arbitrary power. The will of the Many expels the Ministry from power, and those who had formed the Opposition fill the vacant places ; but the latter having now become the Government, meet with hostility from the Many, and share the same fate. Thus agitation and unrest are perpetuated. This collision, this nodus, this problem is that with which history is now occupied, and whose solution it has to work out in the future.</p> <p>2. We have now to consider the French Revolution in its organic connection with the History of the World ; for in its substantial import that event is World-Historical, and that contest of Formalism which we discussed in the last paragraph must be properly distinguished from its wider bearings. As regards outward diffusion its principle gained access to almost all modern states, either through conquest or by express introduction into their political life. Particularly all the Romanic nations, and the Roman Catholic World in special – France, Italy, Spain – were subjected to the dominion of Liberalism. But it became bankrupt everywhere ; first, the grand firm in France, then its branches in Spain and Italy ; twice, in fact, in the states into which it had been introduced. This was the case in Spain, where it was first brought in by the Napoleonic Constitution, then by that which the Cortes adopted – in Piedmont, first when it was incorporated with the French Empire, and a second time as the result of internal insurrection ; so in Rome and in Naples it was twice set up. Thus Liberalism as an abstraction, emanating from France, traversed the Roman World ; but Religious slavery held that world in the fetters of political servitude. For it is a false principle that the fetters which bind Right and Freedom can be broken without the emancipation of conscience – that there can be a Revolution without a Reformation. – These countries, therefore, sank back into their old condition – in Italy with some modifications of the outward political condition. Venice and Genoa, those ancient aristocracies, which could at least boast of legitimacy, vanished as rotten despotisms. Material superiority in power can achieve no enduring results : Napoleon could not coerce Spain into freedom any more than Philip II could force Holland into slavery.</p> <p>Contrasted with these Romanic nations we observe the other powers of Europe, and especially the Protestant nations. Austria and England were not drawn within the vortex of internal agitation, and exhibited great, immense proofs of their internal solidity. Austria is not a Kingdom, but an Empire, i.e., an aggregate of many political organizations. The inhabitants of its chief provinces are not German in origin and character, and have remained unaffected by “ideas.” Elevated neither by education nor religion, the lower classes in some districts have remained in a condition of serfdom, and the nobility have been kept down, as in Bohemia ; in other quarters, while the former have continued the same, the barons have maintained their despotism, as in Hungary. Austria has surrendered that more intimate connection with Germany which was derived from the imperial dignity, and renounced its numerous possessions and rights in Germany and the Netherlands. It now takes its place in Europe as a distinct power, involved with no other. England, with great exertions, maintained itself on its old foundations ; the English Constitution kept its ground amid the general convulsion, though it seemed so much the more liable to be affected by it, as a public Parliament, that habit of assembling in public meeting which was common to all orders of the state, and a free press, offered singular facilities for introducing the French principles of Liberty and Equality among all classes of the people. Was the English nation too backward in point of culture to apprehend these general principles ? Yet in no country has the question of Liberty been more frequently a subject of reflection and public discussion. Or was the English constitution so entirely a Free Constitution – had those principles been already so completely realized in it, that they could no longer excite opposition or even interest ? The English nation may be said to have approved of the emancipation of France ; but it was proudly reliant on its own constitution and freedom, and instead of imitating the example of the foreigner, it displayed its ancient hostility to its rival, and was soon involved in a popular war with France.</p> <p>The Constitution of England is a complex of mere particular Rights and particular privileges : the Government is essentially administrative – that is, conservative of the interests of all particular orders and classes ; and each particular Church, parochial district, county, society, takes care of itself, so that the Government, strictly speaking, has nowhere less to do than in England. This is the leading feature of what Englishmen call their Liberty, and is the very antithesis of such a centralized administration as exists in France, where down to the least village the Maire is named by the Ministry or their agents. Nowhere can people less tolerate free action on the part of others than in France : there the Ministry combines in itself all administrative power, to which, on the other hand, the Chamber of Deputies lays claim. In England, on the contrary, every parish, every subordinate division and association has a part of its own to perform. Thus the common interest is concrete, and particular interests are taken cognizance of and determined in view of that common interest. These arrangements, based on particular interests, render a general system impossible. Consequently, abstract and general principles have no attraction for Englishmen – are addressed in their case to inattentive ears. – The particular interests above referred to have positive rights attached to them, which date from the antique times of Feudal Law, and have been preserved in England more than in any other country. By an inconsistency of the most startling kind, we find them contravening equity most grossly ; and of institutions characterized by real freedom there are nowhere fewer than in England. In point of private right and freedom of possession they present an incredible deficiency : sufficient proof of which is afforded in the rights of primogeniture, involving the necessity of purchasing or otherwise providing military or ecclesiastical appointments for the younger sons of the aristocracy.</p> <p>The Parliament governs, although Englishmen are unwilling to allow that such is the case. It is worthy of remark, that what has been always regarded as the period of the corruption of a republican people, presents itself here ; viz. election to seats in parliament by means of bribery. But this also they call freedom – the power to sell one's vote, and to purchase a seat in parliament.</p> <p>But this utterly inconsistent and corrupt state of things has nevertheless one advantage, that it provides for the possibility of a government – that it introduces a majority of men into parliament who are statesmen, who from their very youth have devoted themselves to political business and have worked and lived in it. And the nation has the correct conviction and perception that there must be a government, and is therefore willing to give its confidence to a body of men who have had experience in governing ; for a general sense of particularity involves also a recognition of that form of particularity which is a distinguishing feature of one class of the community – that knowledge, experience, and facility acquired by practice, which the aristocracy who devote themselves to such interests exclusively possess. This is quite opposed to the appreciation of principles and abstract views which everyone can understand at once, and which are besides to be found in all Constitutions and Charters. It is a question whether the Reform in Parliament now on the tapis, consistently carried out, will leave the possibility of a Government.</p> <p>The material existence of England is based on commerce and industry, and the English have undertaken the weighty responsibility of being the missionaries of civilization to the world ; for their commercial spirit urges them to traverse every sea and land, to form connections with barbarous peoples, to create wants and stimulate industry, and first and foremost to establish among them the conditions necessary to commerce, viz. the relinquishment of a life of lawless violence, respect for property, and civility to strangers.</p> <p>Germany was traversed by the victoriouss French hosts, but German nationality delivered it from this yoke. One of the leading features in the political condition of Germany is that code of Rights which was certainly occasioned by French oppression, since this was the especial means of bringing to light the deficiencies of the old system. The fiction of an Empire has utterly vanished. It is broken up into sovereign states. Feudal obligations are abolished, for freedom of property and of person have been recognized as fundamental principles. Offices of State are open to every citizen, talent and adaptation being of course the necessary conditions. The government rests with the official world, and the personal decision of the monarch constitutes its apex ; for a final decision is, as was remarked above, absolutely necessary. Yet with firmly established laws, and a settled organization of the State, what is left to the sole arbitrament of the monarch is, in point of substance, no great matter. It is certainly a very fortunate circumstance for a nation, when a sovereign of noble character falls to its lot ; yet in a great state even this is of small moment, since its strength lies in the Reason incorporated in it. Minor states have their existence and tranquillity secured to them more or less by their neighbors : they are therefore, properly speaking, not independent, and have not the fiery trial of war to endure. As has been remarked, a share in the government may be obtained by every one who has a competent knowledge, experience, and a morally regulated will. Those who oi airstoi, not ignorance and the presumptuous conceit of “knowing better.” Lastly, as to Disposition, we have already remarked that in the Protestant Church the reconciliation of Religion with Legal Right has taken place. In the Protestant world there is no sacred, no religious conscience in a state of separation from, or perhaps even hostility to Secular Right.<br class='autobr' /> This is the point which consciousness has attained, and these Mr. G. H. Lewes, in his Biographical History of Philosophy, Vol. IV, Ed. 1841.</p> <p>I cannot mention any work that will serve as a compendium of the course, but I may remark that in my “Outlines of the Philosophy of Law,” §§341-360, I have already given a definition of such a Universel History as it is proposed to develop, and a syllabus of the chief elements or periods into are the principal phases of that form in which the principle of Freedom has realized itself ; – for the History of the World is nothing but the development of the Idea of Freedom. But Objective Freedom – the laws of real Freedom – demand the subjugation of the mere contingent Will – for this is in its nature formal. If the Objective is in itself Rational, human insight and conviction must correspond with the Reason which it embodies, and then we have the other essential element – Subjective Freedom – also realized.[45] We have confined ourselves to the consideration of that progress of the Idea [which has led to this consummation], and have been obliged to forego the pleasure of giving a detailed picture of the prosperity, the periods of glory that have distinguished the career of peoples, the beauty and grandeur of the character of individuals, and the interest attaching to their fate in weal or woe. Philosophy concerns itself only with the glory of the Idea mirroring itself in the History of the World. Philosophy escapes from the weary strife of passions that agitate the surface of society into the calm region of contemplation ; that which interests it is the recognition of the process of development which the Idea has passed through in realizing itself – i.e., the Idea of Freedom, whose reality is the consciousness of Freedom and nothing short of it.<br class='autobr' /> That the History of the World, with all the changing scenes which its annals present, is this process of development and the realization of Spirit – this is the true Theodicaea, the justification of God in History. Only this insight can reconcile Spirit with the History of the World – viz., that what has happened, and is happening every day, is not only not “without God,” but is essentially His Work.</p> <p><a href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/hi/lectures.htm" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/hi/lectures.htm</a></p></div> Hegel Phénoménologie de l'esprit http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article9064 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article9064 2025-03-30T22:15:00Z text/html fr Robert Paris Philosophie Hegel <p>Hegel <br class='autobr' /> Phénoménologie de l'esprit <br class='autobr' /> (1807) <br class='autobr' /> Ce volume représente les connaissances émergentes. La phénoménologie de l'esprit est destinée à remplacer les explications psychologiques ou les discussions abstraites sur les fondements de la connaissance. Il examine la préparation à la science d'un point de vue qui en fait une science nouvelle, intéressante et première de la philosophie. Il inclut les diverses formes de l'esprit comme étapes sur le chemin par lequel il devient connaissance (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique17" rel="directory">Chapter 12 : Philosophical annexes - Annexes philosophiques</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot149" rel="tag">Philosophie</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">Hegel <p>Phénoménologie de l'esprit</p> </h2> <p>(1807)</p> <p>Ce volume représente les connaissances émergentes. La phénoménologie de l'esprit est destinée à remplacer les explications psychologiques ou les discussions abstraites sur les fondements de la connaissance. Il examine la préparation à la science d'un point de vue qui en fait une science nouvelle, intéressante et première de la philosophie. Il inclut les diverses formes de l'esprit comme étapes sur le chemin par lequel il devient connaissance pure ou esprit absolu. C'est pourquoi, dans les divisions principales de cette science, qui se divisent en plusieurs, on considère la conscience, la conscience de soi, la raison observatrice et agissante, l'esprit lui-même, comme esprit moral, instruit et moral, et enfin comme religieux sous ses différentes formes. . La richesse des phénomènes de l'esprit, qui apparaissent à première vue comme du chaos, est ramenée dans un ordre scientifique qui les présente selon leur nécessité, dans lequel les imparfaits se dissolvent et passent aux plus élevés, qui sont leur prochaine vérité. Ils trouvent la vérité ultime d'abord dans la religion, puis dans la science, comme résultat de l'ensemble.</p> <p>Avertissement : il ne s'agit nullement d'une vraie traduction mais nous voulons juste donner un avant-goût du texte de Hegel.</p> <p>Préface</p> <p>Une explication, comme il est d'usage de précéder une œuvre dans une préface - sur le but que l'auteur a en tête, ainsi que sur les raisons et la relation dans laquelle il croit qu'elle se situe par rapport à d'autres traitements antérieurs ou simultanés. du même sujet – semble non seulement superflu dans un texte philosophique, mais aussi inapproprié et inapproprié compte tenu de la nature de la question. Parce que comment et ce qu'il serait approprié de dire sur la philosophie dans une préface - par exemple une déclaration historique de la tendance et du point de vue, le contenu général et les résultats, une connexion de déclarations et d'assurances sur la vérité - ne peut pas être pour la manière dont la vérité philosophique doit être présentée. –De plus, parce que la philosophie est essentiellement dans l'élément d'universalité, qui inclut le particulier, il semble qu'en elle plus que dans d'autres sciences, la chose elle-même et même son essence parfaite étaient exprimées dans le but ou seraient les résultats ultimes, par rapport auxquels l'exécution est en réalité la chose qui n'est pas essentielle. Dans l'idée générale, en revanche, de ce qu'est l'anatomie, par exemple la connaissance des parties du corps selon leur existence non vivante, on est convaincu qu'on ne possède pas encore la chose elle-même, le contenu de cette science, mais s'efforce également d'obtenir le particulier. – De plus, avec un tel agrégat de connaissances qui ne porte pas à juste titre le nom de science, une conversation sur le but et des généralités similaires n'est pas différente de la manière historique et sans concept dont nous parlons du contenu lui-même, de ces nerfs, muscles, etc. devient. En philosophie, par contre, l'inégalité surviendrait selon laquelle une telle voie serait utilisée et pourtant elle se montrerait par elle-même incapable de saisir la vérité.</p> <p>De la même manière, en déterminant le rapport qu'une œuvre philosophique croit entretenir avec d'autres efforts sur le même sujet, on attire un intérêt étranger et on obscurcit ce qui est important dans la connaissance de la vérité. Aussi ferme que soit l'opinion sur l'opposition entre la vérité et la fausseté, elle tend aussi à s'attendre soit à un accord, soit à une opposition à un système philosophique existant, et dans l'explication d'un tel système, elle ne voit que l'un ou l'autre. Elle ne comprend pas tant la diversité des systèmes philosophiques comme le développement progressif de la vérité, mais elle ne voit que la contradiction dans la diversité. Le bourgeon disparaît quand la fleur éclate, et on pourrait dire que le bourgeon est réfuté par la fleur, et de la même manière, à travers le fruit, la fleur est déclarée comme une fausse existence de la plante, et comme sa vérité, la fleur prend la place de la fleur. Ces formes sont non seulement différentes, mais elles se répriment aussi comme étant incompatibles les unes avec les autres. Mais leur nature fluide en fait en même temps des moments d'unité organique dans lesquels non seulement ils ne s'opposent pas les uns aux autres, mais l'un est aussi nécessaire que l'autre, et c'est cette même nécessité qui constitue la vie de l'ensemble. Mais la contradiction contre un système philosophique ne se comprend pas d'une part de cette manière, et d'autre part la conscience compréhensive ne sait généralement pas comment la libérer de son caractère unilatéral ou la maintenir libre, et sous la forme des contradictions et apparemment contradictoires moments de reconnaissance mutuellement nécessaires.</p> <p>La demande de telles explications et leur satisfaction semblent peut-être être le principal problème. En quoi l'intérieur d'un écrit philosophique pourrait-il s'exprimer plus que dans ses buts et ses résultats, et de quelle manière peut-on les connaître plus clairement que par leur différence avec ce que l'époque produit autrement dans le même domaine ? Mais si une telle action doit être considérée plus que le simple début de la cognition, si elle est destinée à une cognition réelle, alors elle est en fait à compter parmi les inventions visant à contourner la matière elle-même et à combiner les deux, l'apparence de sérieux. et des efforts pour cela, et la véritable économie de celui-ci. – Car la chose ne s'épuise pas dans son but , mais dans son exécution , et le résultat n'est pas non plus le tout réel , mais plutôt lui-même avec son devenir ; la fin en soi est l'universel non vivant, tout comme la tendance est la simple activité à laquelle manque encore sa réalité, et le résultat nu est le cadavre qu'elle a laissé derrière elle. – De la même manière, la différence est plutôt la limite de la chose ; c'est là où la chose finit, ou c'est ce qu'elle n'est pas. De tels efforts visant un objectif ou des résultats, ainsi que les différences et les jugements des uns et des autres, sont donc un travail plus facile qu'il n'y paraît peut-être. Parce qu'au lieu de s'occuper de la matière, une telle action est toujours au-delà d'elle, au lieu de s'y habiter et de s'y oublier, une telle connaissance s'étend toujours à un autre, et reste avec elle-même plutôt que avec la matière qu'elle est et s'abandonne à elle. – Le plus simple est de juger ce qui a de la substance et de la solidité, le plus difficile est de le saisir, le plus difficile est de produire une représentation de ce qui combine les deux.</p> <p>Le début de l'éducation et l'élaboration de l'immédiateté de la vie substantielle devront toujours se faire par l'acquisition de la connaissance des principes généraux et des points de vue, pour ensuite se frayer un chemin jusqu'à l'idée de la matière en général, et non moins le soutenir ou le réfuter avec des raisons, comprendre l'abondance concrète et riche selon des certitudes et être capable de donner une information appropriée et un jugement sérieux à son sujet. Mais ce début d'éducation cédera d'abord la place au sérieux d'une vie accomplie, qui conduit à l'expérience de la chose elle-même, et si à cela s'ajoute aussi le fait que le sérieux du concept s'élève jusqu'à sa profondeur, alors une telle connaissance et le jugement sera dans la conversation. Gardez la conversation à sa place.</p> <p>La véritable forme sous laquelle la vérité existe ne peut être que son système scientifique. Mon objectif est d'aider la philosophie à se rapprocher de la forme de la science, dans le but de pouvoir se débarrasser de son nom d' amour de la connaissance et d'être une véritable connaissance . La nécessité interne selon laquelle la connaissance est science réside dans sa nature, et l'explication satisfaisante de celle-ci est uniquement la présentation de la philosophie elle-même. La nécessité externe, cependant, dans la mesure où elle est générale, indépendamment de la contingence de la personne et des raisons individuelles. La manière dont il est saisi est la même que celle avec laquelle le temps intérieur présente l'existence de ses moments sous forme de temps. Montrer qu'il est temps que la philosophie devienne une science serait donc la seule véritable justification des expériences qui ont ce but, parce qu'elles en démontrent la nécessité, oui, parce qu'elles le réaliseraient en même temps.</p> <p>En plaçant la vraie forme de la vérité dans la science - ou, ce qui revient au même, en affirmant que la vérité a l'élément de son existence dans le seul concept</p> <p>Si l'apparition d'une telle exigence est comprise dans son contexte général et considérée au niveau où se situe actuellement l'esprit conscient de soi, alors elle a dépassé la vie substantielle qu'il menait autrement dans l'élément de pensée - au-delà de cette immédiateté de la pensée. sa croyance, sur la satisfaction et la sécurité de la certitude que possédait la conscience de sa réconciliation avec l'être et sa présence générale, interne et externe. Il est non seulement allé au-delà de cela, à l'autre extrême du reflet insubstantiel de lui-même en lui-même, mais aussi au-delà de cela. Non seulement sa vie essentielle est perdue pour lui, mais il est aussi conscient de cette perte et de la finitude qui en est le contenu. Se détournant des conducteurs qui lui reprochent d'avoir tort, les reconnaissant et les blâmant, il exige désormais de la philosophie non pas tant la connaissance de ce qu'il est , mais seulement, à travers la philosophie, l'obtention de cette physicalité et de cette solidité de l'être. Pour répondre à ce besoin, il ne faut pas tant ouvrir l'enfermement de la substance et l'élever à la conscience de soi - pas tant ramener sa conscience chaotique à l'ordre imaginé et à la simplicité du concept, mais plutôt épancher les spécialités. de la pensée, supprimer le concept distinctif et cela Pour créer un sentiment d'être, et non pour fournir à la fois un aperçu et une édification . Le beau, le saint, l'éternel, la religion et l'amour sont l'appât nécessaire pour éveiller le désir de mordre, non pas le concept, mais l'extase, non la nécessité froidement progressive de la chose, mais l'enthousiasme fermentant devrait être l'attitude. et la propagation continue de la richesse de la substance.</p> <p>Cette exigence correspond à l'effort acharné, presque zélé et irritable, pour sortir les gens de leur immersion dans le sensuel, le commun et l'individuel et pour lever leur regard vers les étoiles ; comme s'ils, oubliant complètement le divin, se tenaient avec la poussière et l'eau, comme le ver, sur le point de se rassasier. Autrement, ils auraient doté le ciel d'une immense richesse de pensées et d'images. De tout cela, la signification résidait dans le fil de lumière par lequel il était lié au ciel ; Sur lui, au lieu de rester dans cette présence, le regard glissait au-delà, jusqu'à l'être divin, vers une présence, si l'on peut dire, surnaturelle. L'œil de l'esprit devait être obligatoirement dirigé vers les choses terrestres et s'y tenir fermement ; et il a fallu beaucoup de temps pour exploiter la clarté que seul le surnaturel avait dans l'ennui et la confusion dans lesquels se trouvait le sens de ce monde, et pour rendre intéressante et valable l'attention au présent en tant que tel, ce qu'on appelait l'expérience</p> <p>Cependant, cette frugalité dans la réception ou cette frugalité dans le don ne convient pas à la science. Celui qui cherche seulement l'édification, celui qui veut envelopper de brume sa diversité terrestre d'existence et de pensée et aspire à la jouissance indéfinie de cette divinité indéfinie, peut voir où il trouve cela ; Il trouvera facilement le moyen de s'extasier sur quelque chose et ainsi de se propager. Mais la philosophie doit se garder de chercher à être édifiante.</p> <p>Cette frugalité, qui renonce à la science, doit encore moins prétendre que cet enthousiasme et cette morosité sont quelque chose de plus élevé que la science. Cette parole prophétique veut à peu près rester au centre et en profondeur, regarde avec mépris la détermination (le Horos ) et se tient volontairement à l'écart du concept et de la nécessité, plutôt que de la réflexion qui ne réside que dans le fini. Mais tout comme il y a une largeur vide, il y a aussi une profondeur vide, comme une extension de la substance qui se déverse dans une diversité finie, sans pouvoir la maintenir ensemble - ainsi c'est une intensité sans contenu, qui se présente comme une pure force. sans expansion, la même chose est la superficialité. La puissance de l'esprit est aussi grande que son expression, sa profondeur aussi profonde qu'il ose s'étendre et se perdre dans son interprétation. – En même temps, si cette connaissance non conceptuelle et substantielle prétend avoir enfoncé l'individualité de soi dans l'être et philosopher de manière vraie et sainte, elle cache que, au lieu d'être consacrée à Dieu, elle Il le fait simplement en méprisant la mesure et la détermination, tantôt en elle-même en raison du caractère accidentel du contenu, tantôt en autorisant son propre arbitraire. – En s'abandonnant au ferment effréné de la substance, ils croient, en enveloppant la conscience d'eux-mêmes et en renonçant à leur entendement, qu'ils sont les siens , à qui Dieu donne la sagesse dans leur sommeil ; Ce qu'ils conçoivent et mettent au monde dans leur sommeil sont donc aussi des rêves.</p> <p>À propos, il n'est pas difficile de comprendre que notre époque est une période de naissance et de transition vers une nouvelle période. L'esprit a rompu avec le monde antérieur de son existence et de son imagination et est en train de l'enfoncer dans le passé et de le transformer. Il est vrai qu'il n'est jamais au repos, mais plutôt en mouvement toujours progressif. Mais tout comme chez un enfant, après une longue période de nourriture silencieuse, le premier souffle interrompt cette progression simplement croissante - un saut qualitatif - et l'enfant naît, de même l'esprit en développement mûrit lentement et silencieusement vers la nouvelle forme, libérant une particule de la structure de son précédent Monde après monde, leur oscillation n'est indiquée que par des symptômes individuels ; l'insouciance et l'ennui qui traversent l'existant, la vague prémonition d'un inconnu annoncent que quelque chose d'autre est sur le point de se produire. Cet effritement progressif, qui n'a pas modifié la physionomie de l'ensemble, est interrompu par l'émergence qui, en un éclair, crée d'un seul coup la structure du nouveau monde.</p> <p>Mais cette nouveauté n'a pas de réalité plus complète que l'enfant qui vient de naître ; et cela est essentiel à ne pas ignorer. La première apparition est son immédiateté ou son concept. De même qu'un édifice n'est pas terminé lorsque ses fondations sont posées, la conception d'ensemble réalisée n'est pas l'ensemble lui-même où l'on aimerait voir un chêne dans la force de son tronc et dans l'étendue de ses branches et de ses masses. de son feuillage, nous ne sommes pas satisfaits si on nous montre un gland à ce stade. La science, couronnement d'un monde de l'esprit, n'est donc pas complète à ses débuts. Le début d'un nouvel esprit est le produit d'une révolution généralisée des diverses formes d'éducation, prix d'un chemin multiple et d'efforts tout aussi nombreux. C'est le tout replié sur lui-même face à la succession et à son expansion, le simple concept qui en est devenu. Mais la réalité de cet ensemble simple est que ces formations devenues moments se développent et redonnent forme, mais dans leur nouvel élément, dans le sens qu'ils sont devenus.</p> <p>Puisque, d'une part, la première apparition du monde nouveau n'est que l'ensemble voilé dans sa simplicité ou son fondement général, la richesse de l'existence antérieure est encore présente à la conscience dans la mémoire. Ce qui manque dans la forme nouvellement apparue, c'est la diffusion et la spécificité du contenu ; Mais il manque encore plus le développement de la forme par laquelle les différences sont déterminées avec certitude et ordonnées dans leurs relations fixes. Sans cette formation, la science manque d'intelligibilité générale et apparaît comme la possession ésotérique de quelques individus ; – une possession ésotérique : car elle n'est présente que dans son concept ou son intérieur ; de certains individus : parce que leur apparence non développée rend leur existence individuelle. Seul ce qui est complètement déterminé est à la fois exotérique, compréhensible et susceptible d'être appris et propriété de tous. La forme intelligente de la science est le chemin qui y mène qui est offert à tous et rendu identique pour tous, et arriver à la connaissance rationnelle à travers la compréhension est la juste exigence de la conscience qui rejoint la science ; car l'entendement, c'est la pensée, le pur ego en général ; et l'intelligent est ce qui est déjà connu et ce qui est commun à la science et à la conscience non scientifique, par lequel celle-ci peut entrer directement dans celle-ci.</p> <p>La science, qui n'en est qu'à ses débuts et qui n'a encore atteint ni l'intégralité des détails ni la perfection de la forme, est critiquable à ce sujet. Mais si cela devait affecter leur essence, il serait tout aussi injuste qu'inadmissible de ne pas vouloir reconnaître les exigences de cette formation. Cette opposition semble être le point principal sur lequel travaille actuellement l'enseignement scientifique et qu'il ne comprend pas encore pleinement. Une partie insiste sur la richesse du matériel et la compréhensibilité, l'autre les rejette au moins et insiste sur la rationalité et la divinité immédiates. Même si cette partie est réduite au silence, soit par la seule force de la vérité, soit par l'impétuosité de l'autre, et si elle se sent dépassée par rapport à la cause du problème, elle n'est donc pas satisfaite par rapport à ces exigences, car elles sont juste, mais non accompli. Son silence n'est dû qu'à moitié à la victoire et à moitié à l'ennui et à l'indifférence, qui sont généralement le résultat d'attentes constamment excitées et de l'incapacité à tenir ses promesses.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne le contenu, les autres se font parfois assez facilement pour avoir une large portée. Ils attirent sur leur sol beaucoup de matière, à savoir ce qui est déjà connu et ordonné, et en s'occupant principalement des bizarreries et des curiosités, ils semblent d'autant plus avoir d'autant plus le reste, dont la connaissance à sa manière était déjà terminée, avoir , en même temps, de contrôler ce qui n'est pas encore réglementé et de tout soumettre ainsi à l'idée absolue, qui semble ainsi avoir été reconnue en tout et s'est développée en une science largement répandue. Mais si nous regardons de plus près cette expansion, elle ne semble pas s'être produite parce qu'une seule et même chose s'est formée différemment, mais plutôt comme la répétition informe de l'une et du même, qui ne s'applique qu'extérieurement à l'objet. matériau différent et présente une apparence ennuyeuse qui préserve la diversité. L'idée, qui est probablement vraie en elle-même, ne reste qu'à son début si le développement ne consiste qu'en une telle répétition de la même formule. La forme unique et immobile dirigée par le sujet connaissant autour de ce qui est là, la matière immergée dans cet élément reposant de l'extérieur, ce n'est rien d'autre que des idées arbitraires sur le contenu, l'accomplissement de ce qui est requis, à savoir la richesse qui naît d'elle-même et d'elle-même. différence de forme autodéterminée. Il s'agit plutôt d'un formalisme monochromatique qui différencie le matériau uniquement parce qu'il est déjà préparé et connu.</p> <p>Ce faisant, il revendique cette monotonie et cette universalité abstraite comme étant l'absolu ; Il affirme que son insuffisance est une incapacité à s'emparer du point de vue absolu et à s'y accrocher. Si autrement la possibilité vide d'imaginer quelque chose d'une manière différente était suffisante pour réfuter une idée, et que la même simple possibilité, l'idée générale, avait aussi toute la valeur positive de la connaissance réelle, alors nous voyons ici l'idée générale de la même manière. Toute valeur est attribuée à cette forme d'irréalité, et la dissolution de ce qui est différencié et déterminé, ou plutôt son rejet dans l'abîme du vide, qui n'est ni développé ni auto-justifié, est considérée comme une manière spéculative de voir la réalité. il. En considérant toute existence telle qu'elle est dans l'absolu , rien d'autre n'existe ici, si ce n'est que l'on dit qu'on en a maintenant parlé comme quelque chose dans l'absolu, le A = A, mais de telles choses n'existent pas, mais en cela tout est un. Opposer cette connaissance unique , selon laquelle dans l'absolu tout est égal, à la connaissance qui distingue et accomplit ou cherche et exige l'accomplissement - ou faire passer son absolu pour la nuit, dans laquelle, comme on dit, toutes les vaches sont noires, c'est la naïveté du vide Connaissance. – Le formalisme que la philosophie moderne a condamné et injurié, et qui s'est régénéré en elle, ne disparaîtra pas de la science, même si son insuffisance est connue et ressentie, tant que la connaissance de la réalité absolue n'aura pas été pleinement comprise sur sa nature. – Compte tenu du fait que l'idée générale, lorsqu'elle précède ce qui est une tentative de son exécution, permet de mieux comprendre cette dernière, il est utile d'en indiquer ici le caractère approximatif, dans le but à la fois de en donnant à cette occasion quelques formes supprimées, dont l'habitude est un obstacle à la connaissance philosophique.</p> <p>Selon ma perspicacité, qui doit se justifier par la représentation du système, tout dépend de la compréhension et de l'expression de la vérité non pas en tant que substance , mais tout autant en tant que sujet . En même temps, il convient de noter que la physicalité englobe autant le général ou l'immédiateté de la connaissance que ce qui est l'être ou l'immédiateté de la connaissance. – Si la conception de Dieu comme substance unique a scandalisé l'époque dans laquelle cette détermination s'exprimait, la raison en était en partie l'instinct selon lequel la conscience de soi était seulement perdue en elle, non préservée, mais en partie c'est le contraire, c'est-à-dire que La pensée en tant que pensée s'accroche à l' universalité , à la même simplicité ou à la physicalité indifférenciée et immobile, et troisièmement, lorsque la pensée unit l'être de la substance en tant que telle et l'immédiateté ou la vision en tant que pensée. Une fois saisi, cela dépend encore de la question de savoir si cette perception intellectuelle ne retombe pas dans une simplicité paresseuse et ne présente pas la réalité elle-même de manière irréelle.</p> <p>La substance vivante est en outre l'être, qui est en vérité sujet , ou, ce qui revient au même, qui est en vérité réel, seulement dans la mesure où il est le mouvement de se poser, ou la médiation du devenir autre avec soi. En tant que sujet, c'est la négativité pure et simple , précisément à cause de cela la division du simple, ou le dédoublement opposé, qui est à son tour la négation de cette différence indifférente et de son opposition ; seule la restauration de l'égalité ou du reflet dans l'altérité en soi - et non une unité originelle en tant que telle, ou une unité immédiate en tant que telle, est la vérité. C'est le devenir de lui-même, le cercle, qui présuppose sa fin pour but et l'a pour début, et n'est réel que par son exécution et sa fin.</p> <p>La vie de Dieu et la connaissance divine peuvent très bien s'exprimer comme un amour jouant avec lui-même ; Cette idée sombre dans l'édification et même dans la fadeur si le sérieux, la douleur, la patience et le travail du négatif y manquent. En elle-même, cette vie est l'égalité et l'unité sans nuages ​​avec elle-même, ce qui ne se soucie pas sérieusement d'être différent et d'aliéner, ni de surmonter cette aliénation. Mais cet en-soi est l'universalité abstraite dans laquelle sa nature, étant pour elle-même , et donc le mouvement propre de la forme en général, est négligée. Si l'on affirme que la forme est égale à l'essence, c'est précisément pour cette raison un malentendu que de penser que la connaissance peut se contenter de l'en-soi ou de l'essence, mais qu'elle peut épargner la forme ; – que le principe absolu ou la vision absolue rend inutile la mise en œuvre du premier ou le développement de l'autre. Précisément parce que la forme est aussi essentielle à l'être qu'à lui-même, elle ne doit pas être saisie et exprimée simplement comme un être, c'est-à-dire comme une substance immédiate, ou comme une pure intuition personnelle du divin, mais simplement comme une substance immédiate. autant qu'une forme et dans toute la richesse de la forme développée ; Ce n'est qu'alors qu'il est saisi et exprimé comme quelque chose de réel.</p> <p>La vérité est le tout. Mais le tout n'est que l'être qui se complète par son développement. Il faut dire de l'Absolu qu'il est essentiellement un résultat , qu'il n'est qu'en fin de compte ce qu'il est réellement ; et c'est précisément là que réside sa nature, être quelque chose de réel, un sujet, ou devenir soi. Aussi contradictoire qu'il puisse paraître que l'absolu doive être compris essentiellement comme un résultat, un peu de réflexion corrige cette apparence de contradiction. Le Commencement, le Principe ou l'Absolu, tel qu'il est exprimé d'abord et immédiatement, n'est que le général. De même que lorsque je dis : tous les animaux, ce mot ne peut s'appliquer à la zoologie, il est également frappant que les mots du divin, de l'absolu, de l'éternel, etc. n'expriment pas ce qu'ils contiennent ; – et seuls de tels mots expriment réellement l'intuition comme immédiate. Ce qui est plus qu'un tel mot, le passage même à une phrase, est un devenir autre qu'il faut reprendre, est une médiation. Mais c'est ce qui est horrifié, comme si en en faisant plus que cela, on aurait dit que ce n'était pas quelque chose d'absolu et qu'on n'abandonnerait pas du tout la connaissance absolue.</p> <p>Mais cette horreur vient en réalité d'une méconnaissance de la nature de la médiation et de la connaissance absolue elle-même, car la médiation n'est rien d'autre que l'identité en mouvement, ou bien le reflet en soi, le moment du Moi existant en soi, la pure Négativité. ou simplement devenir . Le Je, ou le devenir en général, cette médiation, par souci de simplicité, est précisément l'immédiateté naissante et l'immédiat lui-même - C'est donc une méconnaissance de la raison si la réflexion est exclue de la vérité et n'est pas comprise comme un moment positif. de l'absolu. C'est elle qui fait de la vérité un résultat, mais qui abolit aussi cette opposition à son devenir, parce que ce devenir est tout aussi simple et donc non différent de la forme de la vérité, qui se révèle simple dans le résultat ; C'est plutôt ce retour à la simplicité. – Bien que l'embryon soit humain en soi , il ne l'est pas en soi ; Pour lui, ce n'est qu'en tant que raison instruite qui s'est faite ce qu'elle est en elle-même . C'est leur réalité. Mais ce résultat est lui-même une simple immédiateté, car c'est une liberté consciente qui repose en elle-même et qui n'a pas poussé l'opposition de côté et ne l'y a pas laissée, mais qui s'est réconciliée avec elle.</p> <p>Ce qui est dit peut aussi être exprimé de telle manière que la raison soit l' action intentionnelle . L'élévation de la nature supposée au-dessus d'une pensée mal comprise et, tout d'abord, le bannissement de la finalité externe ont discrédité la forme du but en général. Cependant, tout comme Aristote définit la nature comme une action intentionnelle, le but est l'immédiat, le repos, qui est lui-même en mouvement ou sujet. Son pouvoir abstrait de bouger est l'être pour soi ou la pure négativité. Le résultat est le même que le début uniquement parce que le début est le but ; – ou bien le réel n'est identique à son concept que parce que l'immédiat a pour finalité le soi ou la pure réalité en soi. Le but accompli ou la réalité existante est le mouvement et le devenir déployé ; Mais c'est précisément cette inquiétude qui est le moi ; et il est égal à l'immédiateté et à la simplicité du début parce qu'il est le résultat, ce qui est revenu à lui-même - mais ce qui est revenu à lui-même est précisément le soi, et le soi est la mêmeté et la simplicité autoréférentielles.</p> <p>La nécessité de présenter l'absolu comme sujet faisait appel aux phrases : Dieu est l'éternel, ou l'ordre moral du monde, ou l'amour, etc. Dans de telles phrases, la vérité n'est posée que comme sujet, mais non comme mouvement de l'absolu. soi-même - auto-réflexif. Cela commence dans une phrase comme celle-ci par le mot : Dieu . Ceci en soi est un son insensé, un simple nom ; seul le prédicat dit ce qu'il est , son accomplissement et son sens ; Le début vide ne devient une véritable connaissance qu'à cette fin. A cet égard, on ne voit pas pourquoi on ne parle pas de l'ordre éternel, moral du monde, etc., ou, comme le faisaient les anciens, de concepts purs, d'être, d'un, etc., de ce qu'est le sens, seul, sans ajouter le Loud dénué de sens. Mais ce mot signifie que ce qui est posé n'est pas un être, ni une essence, ni un universel en général, mais plutôt quelque chose qui se reflète en soi, un sujet. Mais en même temps, cela n'est qu'une anticipation. Le sujet est supposé être un point fixe auquel les prédicats sont attachés comme support, par un mouvement qui appartient à celui qui le connaît et n'est pas considéré comme appartenant au point lui-même ; Mais à travers eux seul le contenu serait représenté comme sujet. Compte tenu de la nature de ce mouvement, il ne peut lui appartenir ; mais selon l'hypothèse de ce point, elle ne peut avoir aucune autre nature, elle ne peut être qu'externe. Cette anticipation selon laquelle l'Absolu est le sujet n'est donc pas seulement la réalité de ce concept, mais la rend même impossible, car la première le fixe comme un point stationnaire, tandis que la seconde est un mouvement de soi.</p> <p>Parmi les nombreuses conclusions qui découlent de ce qui a été dit, on peut souligner le fait que la connaissance n'est que réelle et peut être représentée comme une science ou comme un système . En outre, un soi-disant principe ou principe de philosophie, s'il est vrai, est également faux simplement parce qu'il s'agit d'un principe ou d'un principe. – Il est donc facile de le réfuter. La réfutation consiste à montrer son défaut ; Mais elle est défectueuse parce qu'elle n'est que le général ou le principe, le commencement. Si la réfutation est complète, alors elle a été prise et développée de l'intérieur de lui-même - et non provoquée par des assurances et des idées opposées venant de l'extérieur. Il serait donc bien son développement et donc le complément de sa déficience s'il ne méconnait pas de reconnaître qu'il ne prête attention qu'à son côté négatif et ne prend pas également conscience de sa progression et de ses conséquences quant à son côté positif . – La mise en œuvre positive réelle du début est en même temps, à l'inverse, tout autant une attitude négative à son égard, à savoir contre sa forme unilatérale d'être direct ou de finalité . Elle peut donc être considérée tout autant comme une réfutation de ce qui constitue la base du système, mais mieux comme une démonstration que la base ou le principe du système n'en est en fait que le début .</p> <p>Que la vérité n'est réelle qu'en tant que système, ou que la substance est essentiellement un sujet, s'exprime dans l'idée qui exprime l'absolu comme esprit - le concept le plus sublime et qui appartient aux temps modernes et à leur religion. Le spirituel seul est le réel ; c'est l'essence ou l'être-en-soi - ce qui se comporte ou se détermine, l' altérité et l'être-pour-soi - et ce qui reste en soi dans cette détermination ou son être-hors-soi ; – ou c'est en soi . – Mais cet être-en-et-pour-soi n'est que pour nous ou en soi , ou bien c'est la substance spirituelle . Cela doit également être le cas pour soi-même – la connaissance du spirituel et la connaissance de soi-même en tant qu'esprit ; c'est-à-dire qu'il doit être lui-même en tant qu'objet , mais aussi directement en tant qu'objet médiatisé , c'est-à-dire suspendu et réfléchi. Il n'est pour nous que dans la mesure où son contenu spirituel est généré par lui-même ; Mais dans la mesure où il est aussi pour soi, pour soi, cette auto-création, le concept pur, est en même temps l'élément objectif dans lequel il a son existence ; et c'est ainsi qu'il est un objet qui se reflète en lui-même dans son existence. – L'esprit qui se sait esprit est la science . C'est sa réalité et le royaume qu'il se construit dans son propre élément.</p> <p>La pure connaissance de soi dans l'altérité absolue, cet éther en tant que tel , est la base de la science ou de la connaissance en général . Le début de la philosophie présuppose ou exige que la conscience se situe dans cet élément. Mais cet élément lui-même n'a sa perfection et sa transparence que par le mouvement de son devenir. C'est la spiritualité pure, ou l'universel, qui a le mode de la simple immédiateté. Parce que c'est l'immédiateté de l'esprit, parce que la substance de l'esprit en général, c'est l' essence transfigurée , le reflet, qui est lui-même simple ou l'immédiateté, l'être, qui est le reflet en soi. La science, de son côté, exige que la conscience de soi s'élève dans cet éther afin de pouvoir vivre avec et en lui. A l'inverse, l'individu a le droit d'exiger que la science lui fournisse l'échelle menant au moins à ce point de vue. Son droit repose sur son indépendance absolue, qu'il sait posséder dans toute forme de sa connaissance, car sous toute forme, qu'elle soit reconnue ou non par la science, et que le contenu soit celui qu'elle veut, elle a ou a le droit absolu. former en même temps une certitude immédiate de soi ; et, si l'on préférait cette expression, avec elle étant inconditionné . Si le point de vue de la conscience, la connaissance des choses objectives par opposition à elle-même et d'elle-même par rapport à elles, est considéré par la science comme autre chose - celui dans lequel elle se trouve avec elle-même, plutôt que comme la perte de l'esprit - alors pour lui , d'autre part, l'élément science est une distance surnaturelle dans laquelle il ne se possède plus. Chacune de ces deux parties apparaît comme l'inverse de la vérité par rapport à l'autre. Le fait que la conscience naturelle se confie directement à la science est une tentative qu'elle fait, ne sachant pas par quoi elle est attirée, de la bouleverser ; La contrainte d'accepter cette position inhabituelle et de s'y déplacer est une force si mal préparée qu'elle semble inutile et qu'il est obligé de s'infliger. – La science est ce qu'elle veut en soi, par rapport à la conscience de soi immédiate elle se présente comme quelque chose d'inversé par rapport à elle, ou bien parce que la conscience de soi immédiate est le principe de réalité, elle la soutient en étant hors d'elle en soi d'irréalité. Il lui faut donc unir cet élément à lui-même, ou plutôt montrer cela et comment il lui appartient. Faute de réalité, il n'y a que l' en-soi , le but , qui est encore une chose intérieure., non pas comme esprit, seulement comme substance spirituelle. Il doit s'exprimer et devenir pour lui-même ; cela ne signifie rien d'autre que : il doit poser la conscience de soi comme ne faisant qu'un avec lui-même.</p> <p>Ce devenir de la science en général , ou de la connaissance , est ce que représente cette phénoménologie de l'esprit , comme la première partie de son système. La connaissance telle qu'elle est au départ, ou l' esprit immédiat, est l'insensé, ou la conscience sensible . Pour devenir une connaissance réelle ou pour produire l'élément de science qui est son concept pur, il lui faut parcourir un long chemin. – Ce devenir, tel qu'il s'institue dans son contenu et les formes qui y apparaissent, apparaît comme autre chose que l'orientation de la conscience non scientifique vers la science ; aussi autre chose que le fondement de la science ; - en tout cas, comme l'enthousiasme qui part d'emblée, comme d'un coup de pistolet, avec une connaissance absolue, et qui se termine déjà avec d'autres points de vue par le fait qu'il déclare n'y prêter aucune attention.</p> <p>Mais la tâche consistant à conduire l'individu à la connaissance d'un point de vue non instruit devait être comprise dans son sens général et considérer l'individu en général, l'esprit du monde, dans son éducation. – En ce qui concerne la relation entre les deux, chaque moment de l'individu en général montre comment il acquiert sa propre forme et conception concrète. Mais l'individu particulier est l'esprit incomplet, une figure concrète dont toute l'existence est déterminée par une spécificité et dans laquelle les autres n'existent que sous des traits mixtes. Dans l'esprit qui est plus haut qu'un autre, l'existence concrète inférieure est tombée à un moment inaperçu ; ce qui était auparavant la chose elle-même n'est plus qu'une trace ; sa forme est enveloppée et est devenue une simple ombre. L'individu, dont la substance est l'esprit supérieur, traverse ce passé de la même manière qu'il exerce une science supérieure, traverse la connaissance préparatoire qu'il a longtemps détenue pour se rendre présent son contenu ; il en évoque le souvenir sans s'y intéresser ni s'y attarder. De cette manière, chaque individu passe également par les étapes éducatives de l'esprit général, mais comme des formes déjà abandonnées par l'esprit, comme des étapes d'un chemin tracé et pavé ; comment, en ce qui concerne la connaissance, nous voyons ce qui occupait l'esprit mûr des hommes dans les premiers âges, réduit à la connaissance, aux exercices et même aux jeux de l'enfance, et dans le progrès pédagogique nous reconnaîtrons l'histoire de l'éducation du monde, tracée comme dans une silhouette. Cette existence passée est déjà propriété acquise de l'esprit général, qui constitue la substance de l'individu ou sa nature inorganique. – De ce point de vue, la formation de l'individu consiste dans le fait qu'il acquiert ce qui est disponible, consomme sa nature inorganique et en prend possession pour lui-même. Mais cela n'est pas différent du fait que l'esprit ou la substance générale se donne sa propre conscience, ou son devenir et son reflet en lui-même.</p> <p>La science présente ce mouvement formateur dans ses détails et sa nécessité, ainsi que dans sa forme, ce qui est déjà entré dans le moment et la propriété de l'esprit. Le but est la compréhension par l'esprit de ce qu'est la connaissance. L'impatience exige l'impossible, à savoir l'atteinte du but sans moyens. D'une part, la longueur de ce chemin doit être supportée, car chaque instant est nécessaire, - d'autre part, il faut s'attarder sur chacun , car chacun est lui-même une forme individuelle et entière et n'est considéré que de manière absolue, dans la mesure où car sa détermination dans son ensemble ou concrètement, ou l'ensemble dans la particularité de cette disposition est considérée. – Parce que la substance de l'individu, parce que l'esprit du monde a eu la patience de parcourir ces formes au cours d'une longue période de temps et d'assumer l'énorme travail de l'histoire du monde, et parce qu'il ne pouvait pas prendre conscience de lui-même par d'autres moyens. , cela peut en effet. L'individu ne peut pas comprendre sa substance avec moins. En attendant, il lui faut moins d'efforts parce que cela a été réalisé en lui-même - le contenu est déjà la réalité effacée en possibilité et l'immédiateté conquise. Déjà pensée , elle est la propriété de l'individualité ; Il ne faut plus convertir l'existence en être -en-soi , mais seulement convertir l'en-soi en forme d' être-pour-soi .dont la nature mérite d'être déterminée plus en détail.</p> <p>Ce qui épargne à l'individu ce mouvement, c'est l'abolition de l'existence ; Mais ce qui reste, c'est l' imagination et la connaissance des formes. L'existence ramenée à la substance n'est transférée directement dans l'élément du soi qu'à travers cette première négation ; Elle a donc encore le même caractère d'immédiateté incompréhensible ou d'indifférence impassible que l'existence elle-même, ou bien elle n'a fait que passer dans l' imagination . – En même temps, c'est quelque chose de connu , quelque chose que l'esprit a assimilé, dans lequel ne réside plus son activité et donc son intérêt. Si l'activité qui concerne l'existence est la médiation immédiate ou existante, et donc le seul mouvement de l'esprit particulier qui ne se comprend pas, alors la connaissance, en revanche, est dirigée contre l'idée qui en est née, contre cette connaissance, c'est l'action du moi général et l'intérêt de la pensée.</p> <p>Le connu en général n'est pas connu parce qu'il est connu . C'est la forme la plus courante d'auto-tromperie, ainsi que de tromperie d'autrui, de supposer que quelque chose est connu en le connaissant et de l'accepter de la même manière ; Avec tous ces échanges, une telle connaissance ne vient pas facilement sans savoir ce qui lui arrive. Le sujet et l'objet, etc., Dieu, la nature, l'entendement, la sensualité, etc. sont pris comme base comme connu et comme quelque chose de valable et constituent des points fixes à la fois de départ et de retour. Le mouvement va et vient entre eux, qui restent immobiles, et donc uniquement à leur surface. Comprendre et tester consiste donc aussi à voir si chacun retrouve dans son imagination ce qu'il a dit, si cela lui semble tel et si cela lui est connu ou non.</p> <p>Analyser une idée, comme on le faisait habituellement, n'était rien d'autre que d'abolir la forme sous laquelle elle était connue . Démanteler une idée en ses éléments originels, c'est remonter à ses moments, qui au moins n'ont pas la forme de l'idée existante, mais constituent plutôt la propriété immédiate du soi. Cette analyse ne porte que sur des idées qui sont elles-mêmes des déterminations connues, fixes et reposantes. Mais un moment essentiel est cette chose divorcée et irréelle elle-même ; car c'est seulement parce que le concret se sépare et devient irréel qu'il se meut. L'activité de séparation est le pouvoir et l'œuvre de l' esprit , le plus merveilleux et le plus grand, ou plutôt le pouvoir absolu. Le cercle, qui reste fermé sur lui-même et tient ses moments comme une substance, est la relation immédiate et donc peu surprenante. Mais le fait que l'accidentel, séparé de son étendue en tant que tel, ce qui n'est lié et réel que dans sa relation avec d'autres choses, acquiert sa propre existence et sa liberté séparée est la formidable puissance du négatif ; c'est l'énergie de la pensée, du soi pur. La mort, si nous voulons appeler cela irréalité, est la chose la plus terrible, et retenir les morts requiert la plus grande force. La beauté faible déteste l'esprit parce qu'il exige d'elle ce dont elle n'est pas capable. Mais la vie de l'esprit n'est pas la vie qui fuit la mort et se garde pure de la dévastation, mais plutôt celle qui la supporte et s'y maintient. Il n'obtient sa vérité qu'en se retrouvant dans une tourmente totale. Il n'est pas cette puissance comme le positif, qui détourne le regard du négatif, comme lorsque nous disons de quelque chose que ceci n'est rien ou mal, et maintenant, ayant fini avec cela, passons de cela à autre chose ; mais il n'est ce pouvoir qu'en regardant le négatif en face et en s'y attardant. Cette permanence est le pouvoir magique qui le transforme en existence. – Il en est de même de ce qu'on appelait plus haut le sujet, qui, en donnant existence à la détermination dans son élément, annule l'immédiateté abstraite, c'est-à-dire qui n'existe qu'en général , et est donc la véritable substance, être ou immédiateté, qui n'est pas la médiation qui a hors d'elle-même, mais qui est elle-même.</p> <p>Le fait que ce qui est présenté devient la propriété de la pure conscience de soi, cette élévation à l'universalité en général, n'est qu'un aspect , pas encore l'éducation complète. – Le type d'étude des temps anciens diffère de celui des temps modernes en ce sens qu'il s'agissait du développement réel de la conscience naturelle. En testant particulièrement chaque aspect de son existence et en philosophant sur tout ce qui se passait, il s'est transformé en une communauté tout à fait active. Dans les temps modernes, cependant, l'individu trouve la forme abstraite préparée ; l'effort pour s'en emparer et se l'approprier est plus une poussée en avant de la création intérieure et tronquée du général qu'une émergence de celui-ci du concret et de la diversité de l'existence. Le travail ne consiste plus tant à purifier l'individu de la voie sensuelle immédiate et à en faire une pensée et une substance pensante, mais bien au contraire à réaliser et inspirer l'universel en abolissant les pensées fixes, déterminées. Mais il est bien plus difficile d'amener des pensées fixes à la fluidité que l'existence sensuelle. La raison est celle indiquée précédemment ; ces déterminations ont le moi, le pouvoir de la réalité négative ou pure comme substance et élément de leur existence ; Les déterminations sensibles, au contraire, ne sont que l'immédiateté abstraite et impuissante ou l'être en tant que tel. Les pensées deviennent fluides lorsque la pensée pure, cette immédiateté intérieure , se reconnaît comme un moment ou lorsque la pure certitude d'elle-même s'abstient d'elle-même ; - ne se laisse pas de côté, le met de côté, mais abandonne le fixe de son auto-position, à la fois le fixe du pur concret, qui est le soi par opposition au contenu différencié, - comme le fixe des choses différenciées, qui sont dans l'élément de la Pensée pure postulé pour participer à cette inconditionnalité du Je. Par ce mouvement, les pensées pures deviennent des concepts et sont ce qu'elles sont réellement, des mouvements personnels, des cercles, quelle est leur substance, des êtres spirituels.</p> <p>Ce mouvement des entités pures constitue la nature de la science en général. Considérée comme la connexion de son contenu, elle en est la nécessité et l'extension à l'ensemble organique. Le chemin par lequel le concept de connaissance est atteint devient également par lui un devenir nécessaire et complet, de sorte que cette préparation cesse d'être une philosophie accidentelle basée sur tels et tels objets, relations et pensées de la conscience imparfaite, comme la coïncidence. apporte avec lui, relie ou cherche à établir la vérité à travers un va-et-vient de raisonnement, de conclusion et de conclusion à partir de certaines pensées ; Au contraire, à travers le mouvement du concept, cette voie englobera la mondanité totale de la conscience dans sa nécessité.</p> <p>Une telle représentation constitue aussi la première partie de la science car l'existence de l'esprit n'est d'abord rien d'autre que l'immédiat ou le commencement, mais le commencement n'est pas encore son retour à soi. L' élément de l'existence immédiate est donc la détermination, par laquelle cette partie de la science diffère des autres. – L'énoncé de cette différence conduit à la discussion de quelques idées fixes qui tendent à surgir ici.</p> <p>L'existence immédiate de l'esprit, de la conscience , a les deux moments de connaissance et d'objectivité négatifs à la connaissance. Au fur et à mesure que l'esprit se développe dans cet élément et interprète ses moments, cette opposition se présente à eux et ils apparaissent tous comme des formes de conscience. La science de cette voie est la science de l' expérience qu'a la conscience ; la substance est considérée comme elle et son mouvement est son objet. La conscience ne connaît et ne comprend rien sauf ce qui est dans son expérience ; car ce qui s'y trouve n'est que la substance spirituelle, et même en tant qu'objet en soi. Mais l'esprit devient objet, parce qu'il est ce mouvement de devenir autre chose , c'est-à-dire objet de soi , et d'abolir cette altérité. Et l'expérience s'appelle précisément ce mouvement dans lequel l'immédiat, l'inexpérimenté, c'est-à-dire l'abstrait, qu'il vienne de l'être sensuel ou de la simple pensée, s'aliène, puis revient à lui-même de cette aliénation, et ce seulement maintenant. dans sa réalité et sa vérité est représentée ainsi que la propriété de la conscience.</p> <p>L'inégalité qui s'opère dans la conscience entre le moi et la substance qui est son objet est leur différence, la négative en général. Cela peut être considéré comme le défaut des deux, mais c'est leur âme ou ce qui les anime ; c'est pourquoi certains anciens comprenaient le vide comme la chose en mouvement, en ce sens qu'ils comprenaient la chose en mouvement comme le négatif , mais pas encore comme le soi. – Si ce négatif apparaît d'abord comme l'inégalité du moi par rapport à l'objet, alors c'est tout autant l'inégalité de la substance par rapport à elle-même, ce qui se passe en dehors d'elle, semble être une activité contre elle, est son propre fait, et il se révèle être essentiellement le sujet à être. En le montrant parfaitement, l'esprit a rendu son existence égale à son essence ; c'est un objet en soi tel qu'il est, et l'élément abstrait de l'immédiateté et de la séparation entre connaissance et vérité a été surmonté. L'être est absolument médiatisé ; – c'est un contenu substantiel, qui est aussi directement la propriété du moi, égoïste ou du concept. Ceci conclut la phénoménologie de l'esprit. Ce qu'il s'y prépare, c'est l'élément de connaissance. En cela, les moments d'esprit se déploient sous forme de simplicité , qui sait que son objet est elle-même. Ils ne s'effondrent plus dans l'opposition de l'être et du savoir, mais restent dans la simplicité du savoir, sont la vérité sous forme de vérité, et leur différence n'est qu'une différence de contenu. Son mouvement, qui s'organise en un tout dans cet élément, est la logique ou la philosophie spéculative .</p> <p>Puisque ce système d'expérience de l'esprit ne concerne que son apparence , la progression depuis celui-ci jusqu'à la science de la vérité , qui est sous forme de vérité , semble être simplement négative, et on pourrait souhaiter être épargné par le négatif comme le faux et le faux faux . Les idées à ce sujet empêchent avant tout l'accès à la vérité. Cela donne lieu à parler d'une connaissance mathématique, qui considère la connaissance non philosophique comme l'idéal que la philosophie devrait s'efforcer d'atteindre, mais qui a jusqu'à présent s'efforcé en vain.</p> <p>Le vrai et le faux appartiennent aux pensées spécifiques qui s'appliquent immobiles à leur propre être, l'une là-bas et l'autre là-bas, isolées et fixées sans communion avec l'autre. D'un autre côté, il faut affirmer que la vérité n'est pas une pièce de monnaie frappée qui peut être remise et collectée. Il n'y a toujours pas de mal, tout comme il n'y a pas de mal. Le mal et le faux ne sont pas aussi mauvais que le diable, parce qu'en tant que diable, ils sont même faits un sujet spécial ; En tant que faux et mal, ils ne sont que des généralités , mais ils ont néanmoins leur essence propre les uns par rapport aux autres. – Le faux, parce que c'est de lui seul dont il s'agit ici, serait l'autre, le négatif de la substance, qui est le vrai comme contenu de la connaissance. Mais la substance elle-même est essentiellement négative, en partie comme distinction et détermination du contenu, en partie comme simple distinction, c'est-à-dire comme soi et connaissance en général. Vous pouvez probablement vous tromper. Quelque chose est mal connu, ce qui signifie que la connaissance est en disparité avec sa substance. C'est justement cette inégalité qui fait la distinction en général, qui est le moment essentiel. Cette distinction conduit bien à leur égalité, et cette égalité devenue est la vérité. Mais ce n'est pas aussi vrai que si l'inégalité avait été rejetée, comme les scories du métal pur, ni même si l'outil reste éloigné du récipient fini, mais l'inégalité est comme le négatif, comme le soi en vérité tel lui-même. est toujours directement présent. Cependant, on ne peut pas dire que le mensonge soit un moment ou même une composante de la vérité. Qu'il y ait quelque chose de vrai dans tout ce qui est faux - dans cette expression les deux s'appliquent, comme l'huile et l'eau, qui ne sont liées de manière immiscible qu'à l'extérieur. C'est précisément pour le sens de désigner le moment d' altérité totale que leurs expressions n'ont plus besoin d'être utilisées là où leur altérité est éliminée. De même que l'expression de l' unité du sujet et de l'objet, du fini et de l'infini, de l'être et de la pensée, etc., a la gêne que l'objet et le sujet, etc. signifient ce qu'ils sont en dehors de leur unité , de même dans l'unité ils ne sont pas signifiés comme c'est ce que dit leur expression, tout comme le mensonge n'est que le mensonge un moment de vérité.</p> <p>Le dogmatisme de la manière de penser dans la connaissance et dans l'étude de la philosophie n'est rien d'autre que l'opinion selon laquelle la vérité consiste en une proposition qui a un résultat fixe ou qui est connue directement. Une belle réponse devrait être donnée à de telles questions : quand César est né, combien de toises un stade comptait-il et ce que c'était, etc., de même qu'il est certainement vrai que le carré de l'hypoténuse est égal à la somme des carrés de les deux côtés restants du rectangulaire sont triangulaires. Mais la nature de cette prétendue vérité est différente de la nature des vérités philosophiques.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne les vérités historiques , pour les évoquer brièvement, dans la mesure où l'on en considère les aspects purement historiques, on admet facilement qu'elles concernent l'existence individuelle, un contenu dans sa contingence et son arbitraire, des déterminations de celle-ci qui ne sont pas nécessaires. – Mais même des vérités aussi nues que celle citée en exemple ne sont pas sans mouvement de conscience de soi. Pour en connaître un, il faut comparer beaucoup de choses, les rechercher également dans des livres ou, de quelque manière que ce soit, les examiner ; Même d'un point de vue direct, seule la connaissance de l'objet et de ses raisons est considérée comme quelque chose qui a une vraie valeur, même si en réalité seul le simple résultat devrait être ce qui doit être fait.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne les vérités mathématiques , on considérerait encore moins un géomètre qui connaîtrait par cœur les théorèmes d'Euclide sans leurs preuves, sans, comme on pourrait le dire en contraste, les connaître de fond en comble . De même, la connaissance qu'on acquerrait en mesurant de nombreux triangles rectangles que leurs côtés ont la relation connue les uns par rapport aux autres serait considérée comme insatisfaisante. Cependant, même dans la cognition mathématique, l' essentialité de la preuve n'a pas encore le sens et la nature d'être un moment du résultat lui-même, mais en cela elle est terminée et disparaît. En conséquence, le théorème est considéré comme vrai . Mais cette circonstance supplémentaire n'affecte pas son contenu, mais seulement son rapport au sujet ; Le mouvement de la preuve mathématique n'appartient pas à ce qui est l'objet, mais est une action extérieure à la chose . Ainsi, la nature du triangle rectangle ne se décompose pas comme elle est représentée dans la construction nécessaire. la preuve du théorème exprime sa relation, est nécessaire ; toute la production du résultat est un processus et un moyen de connaissance. – Même dans la cognition philosophique, le devenir du Dasein en tant que Dasein est différent du devenir de l' essence ou de la nature intérieure de la chose. Mais la cognition philosophique contient les deux, puisque la cognition mathématique, en revanche, ne représente que le devenir du Dasein , c'est-à-dire l' être de la nature de la chose dans la cognition en tant que telle. D'un autre côté, cela unit également ces deux mouvements spéciaux. L'apparition ou le devenir intérieur de la substance est une transition indivise vers l'extérieur ou vers l'existence, étant pour autre chose ; et inversement, le devenir du Dasein est le repli dans l'essence. Le mouvement est le double processus et devenir du tout de telle sorte que chacun pose l'autre en même temps et chacun en a donc les deux vues comme deux vues ; ensemble, ils forment le tout en se dissolvant et en les transformant en ses moments.</p> <p>Dans la cognition mathématique, la perspicacité est une action extérieure à la matière ; il s'ensuit que la réalité est ainsi modifiée. Les moyens, construction et preuve, contiennent donc des propositions vraies ; mais il faut aussi dire que le contenu est faux. Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, le triangle est déchiré et ses parties sont transformées en d'autres figures créées par la construction. Ce n'est qu'à la fin que le triangle est restauré, ce qui est en fait ce à quoi nous avons affaire, qui a été perdu de vue au fur et à mesure de notre progression et n'est apparu que par morceaux appartenant à d'autres ensembles. – Ici aussi, nous voyons apparaître la négativité du contenu, qu'on pourrait tout aussi bien qualifier de fausseté du contenu que de disparition des pensées fermement intentionnées dans le mouvement du concept.</p> <p>La déficience réelle de cette cognition concerne à la fois la cognition elle-même et son matériel en général. – En ce qui concerne la cognition, la nécessité de construire n'est pas initialement reconnue. Cela ne découle pas du concept du théorème, mais est commandé, et il faut obéir aveuglément à cette règle pour tracer précisément ces lignes, dont on pourrait tracer d'autres infinies, sans rien savoir d'autre que d'avoir de bonne foi que cela sera utile à apporter la preuve. Cette opportunité se manifeste aussi après coup, ce qui n'est qu'extérieur puisqu'elle ne se manifeste qu'après coup, quand la preuve est donnée. – De même, celui-ci prend un chemin qui commence quelque part, on ne sait pas encore quel rapport cela va avoir avec le résultat qui est censé en sortir. Sa progression reprend ces déterminations et ces relations et en laisse d'autres derrière elle, sans qu'on voie immédiatement pourquoi ; un but extérieur régit ce mouvement.</p> <p>La preuve de cette connaissance défectueuse, dont les mathématiques sont fières et dont elles se vantent aussi contre la philosophie, repose uniquement sur la pauvreté de son objectif et sur la défectuosité de son matériel , et est donc d'une sorte que la philosophie doit mépriser. – Son objectif ou son concept est la taille . Il s'agit précisément d'une relation non essentielle et sans concept. Le mouvement de la connaissance se produit donc en surface, ne touche pas la chose elle-même, l'essence ou le concept, et n'est donc pas compréhension. – La matière dont les mathématiques fournissent le joyeux trésor des vérités est l'espace et l' un . L'espace est l'existence dans laquelle le concept inscrit ses différences, comme dans un élément vide et mort où elles sont également immobiles et sans vie. Le réel n'est pas une entité spatiale telle qu'on le considère en mathématiques ; Ni la perception sensorielle concrète ni la philosophie ne s'intéressent à une irréalité telle que les choses mathématiques. Dans un tel élément irréel, il n'y a que des vérités irréelles, c'est-à-dire des propositions fixes et mortes ; Vous pouvez vous arrêter à n'importe lequel d'entre eux ; le suivant recommence tout seul, sans que le premier lui-même passe à l'autre et sans qu'une connexion nécessaire soit ainsi créée par la nature même de la chose. – Aussi, pour le bien de ce principe et de cet élément – ​​​​et c'est la formalité de la preuve mathématique – la connaissance continue sur la ligne de l'égalité . Car les morts, parce qu'ils ne se déplacent pas eux-mêmes, n'aboutissent pas à des différences essentielles, non à une opposition ou à une inégalité essentielle, et donc non à la transition du contraire à l'opposé, non à un mouvement qualitatif, immanent, non autonome. . Car c'est la taille, la différence insignifiante, que seules les mathématiques considèrent. Elle fait abstraction du fait que c'est le concept qui divise l'espace en ses dimensions et détermine les connexions à l'intérieur et à l'intérieur de celles-ci ; Par exemple, il ne prend pas en compte la relation entre la ligne et la surface ; et là où il compare le diamètre du cercle avec la périphérie, il rencontre son incommensurabilité, c'est-à-dire un rapport de concept, un infini qui échappe à sa détermination.</p> <p>Les mathématiques immanentes, dites pures, n'opposent pas le temps en tant que temps à l'espace en tant que deuxième matériau de leur considération. La théorie appliquée en traite certes, comme du mouvement et d'autres choses réelles, mais elle tire de l'expérience les propositions synthétiques, c'est-à-dire les propositions de ses relations, qui sont déterminées par son concept, et n'applique ses formules qu'à ces présupposés. Le fait que les soi-disant preuves de propositions telles que celle de l'équilibre du levier, la relation de l'espace et du temps dans le mouvement de chute, etc., qu'elles donnent souvent, soient données et acceptées comme preuves n'est en soi qu'un la preuve de l'importance de cela. Le besoin de preuve pour la cognition vient du fait que, lorsqu'elle ne l'a plus, elle en respecte aussi l'apparence vide et en tire satisfaction. Une critique de ces preuves serait aussi étrange qu'instructive, en partie pour nettoyer les mathématiques de ce faux plâtre et en partie pour montrer leurs limites, et donc la nécessité d'un autre type de connaissance. – En ce qui concerne le temps , dont on pourrait penser qu'il constituerait la matière de l'autre partie des mathématiques pures comme contrepartie contre l'espace, c'est le concept existant lui-même. Le principe de taille , de différence sans concept, et le principe d' égalité. , d'unité abstraite et inanimée, est incapable de faire face à ce pur trouble de la vie et à cette distinction absolue. Cette négativité n'est donc paralysée que comme l' une , la deuxième substance de cette connaissance, qui, par une action extérieure, réduit la chose en mouvement à une substance pour avoir maintenant en elle un contenu indifférent, extérieur et inanimé.</p> <p>La philosophie, au contraire, ne considère pas la détermination non essentielle , mais elle en tant qu'essentielle ; Son élément et son contenu ne sont pas l'abstrait ou l'irréel, mais l' existence réelle , auto-posante et vivante en soi, dans son concept. C'est le processus qui crée et traverse ses moments, et tout ce mouvement constitue le positif et sa vérité. Cela inclut donc aussi le négatif, ce qu'on appellerait le faux s'il pouvait être considéré comme quelque chose dont il faut faire abstraction. Ce qui disparaît doit plutôt être considéré comme essentiel, non pas dans la définition de quelque chose de solide qui serait coupé de la vérité et laissé en dehors d'elle, on ne sait où, et la vérité ne doit pas non plus être considérée comme le repos positif mort. de l'autre côté. L'apparence est la naissance et la disparition, qui elle-même ne surgit ni ne disparaît, mais est en soi et constitue la réalité et le mouvement de la vie de vérité. La vérité est la frénésie bacchanale, dans laquelle aucun membre ne s'enivre, et parce que chacun se dissout aussi aussitôt qu'il se sépare, c'est aussi le repos transparent et simple. Dans le jugement de ce mouvement, les formes individuelles de l'esprit, comme les pensées spécifiques, n'existent pas, mais elles sont des moments positifs nécessaires tout autant que négatifs et disparaissants. – Dans l' ensemble du mouvement, compris comme repos, ce qui en lui diffère et donne une existence particulière est conservé comme quelque chose qui se souvient , dont l'existence est la connaissance de soi, tout comme celle-ci est aussi l'existence immédiate.</p> <p>Concernant la méthode de ce mouvement ou de la science, il peut paraître nécessaire de préciser plusieurs choses à l'avance. Mais son concept réside déjà dans ce qui est dit, et sa représentation même appartient à la logique, ou plutôt est la logique elle-même, car la méthode n'est autre que la structure du tout dans sa pure essence. Cependant, d'après ce qui a été dit jusqu'à présent, nous devons être conscients que le système d'idées relatif à la méthode philosophique appartient également à une culture perdue. – Si cela devait être dit d'une manière prestigieuse ou révolutionnaire, dont je sais que je m'éloigne, alors il faudrait garder à l'esprit que l'état scientifique dont dérivent les mathématiques – explications, classifications, axiomes, séries de théorèmes, leurs preuves, leurs principes et leurs conclusions et conclusions - l'opinion elle-même est pour le moins dépassée . Même si son inaptitude n'est pas clairement reconnue, on n'en fait plus ou peu d'usage, et si on ne le désapprouve pas, on ne l'aime pas. Et nous devons avoir le préjugé pour l'excellent afin qu'il puisse être utilisé et populaire. Mais il n'est pas difficile de voir que la manière de faire une affirmation, de la justifier et de réfuter l'opposé avec des raisons n'est pas la forme sous laquelle la vérité peut apparaître. La vérité est son mouvement à l'intérieur d'elle-même, mais cette méthode est la connaissance extérieure à la substance. C'est pourquoi cela est propre aux mathématiques, qui, comme nous l'avons noté, ont une relation sans concept entre la taille et son principe et son espace mort, ainsi qu'une relation également morte avec son matériau, et doit lui être laissée. Elle peut aussi rester de manière plus libre, c'est-à-dire plus mêlée d'arbitraire et de coïncidence, dans la vie commune, dans une conversation ou un enseignement historique, plus de curiosité que de connaissance, si approximative soit une préface. Dans la vie commune, la conscience a pour contenu la connaissance, les expériences, les concrétions sensuelles, mais aussi les pensées, les principes et généralement tout ce qui est considéré comme présent ou comme un être ou un être fixe et au repos. Il continue en partie ainsi, en partie il interrompt la connexion à cause du libre arbitraire d'un tel contenu et se comporte comme une détermination et une gestion externe de celui-ci. Cela le ramène à quelque chose de certain, même s'il ne s'agit que du sentiment du moment, et la conviction est satisfaite lorsqu'elle a atteint un point de repos connu.</p> <p>Mais si la nécessité du concept bannit le cours lâche de la conversation raisonnée ainsi que le cours plus rigide du faste scientifique, alors on a déjà rappelé plus haut que sa place ne devrait pas être remplacée par le manque de méthode de punition, l'enthousiasme et l'arbitraire. du discours prophétique, qui concerne non seulement cette science, mais la science en général.</p> <p>Tout aussi peu - après que la triplicité kantienne , qui n'a été redécouverte que par l'instinct, est encore morte, pas encore comprise, a été élevée à son sens absolu, de sorte que la vraie forme dans son vrai contenu a été en même temps établie et le concept de science est apparu - l'utilisation de cette forme pour quelque chose Pour la garder scientifique, à travers lequel nous la voyons réduite à un schéma sans vie, à une apparence réelle, et l'organisation scientifique réduite à une table. - Ce formalisme, dont on a déjà parlé plus haut en général et dont nous voulons préciser ici la manière plus en détail, pense avoir compris et exprimé la nature et la vie d'une figure lorsqu'il prédique une détermination du schéma comme prédicat. - que ce soit la subjectivité ou l'objectivité, ou le magnétisme, l'électricité et ainsi de suite, la contraction ou l'expansion, l'est ou l'ouest et ainsi de suite, qui peuvent être multipliées à l'infini, car de cette manière toute détermination ou forme dans le sont à nouveau utilisés par d'autres comme forme ou moment du schéma et chacun peut avec gratitude rendre le même service à l'autre ; – un cercle de réciprocité, dans lequel on ne découvre pas ce qu'est la chose elle-même, ni ce qu'est l'une ni l'autre. Dans certains cas, les déterminations sensuelles sont reprises de la perception commune, qui sont bien entendu censées signifier autre chose que ce qu'elles disent ; dans d'autres cas, ce qui est significatif en soi, les déterminations pures de la pensée, telles que sujet, objet, la substance, la cause, le général, etc. sont pris en compte utilisés aussi indistinctement et sans esprit critique que dans la vie commune et comme les forces et les faiblesses, l'expansion et la contraction ; de sorte que cette métaphysique est aussi peu scientifique que ces idées sensées.</p> <p>Au lieu de la vie intérieure et du mouvement propre de son existence, une détermination aussi simple s'exprime maintenant par l'intuition, c'est-à-dire ici par la connaissance sensorielle, selon une analogie superficielle et cette application externe et vide de la formule est appelée construction . – Il en va de même pour un tel formalisme que pour tout autre. Comme il faudrait être ennuyeux pour celui qui n'aurait pas appris en un quart d'heure la théorie selon laquelle il existe des maladies asthéniques, sthéniques et indirectement asthéniques et autant de projets de guérison, et qui ne l'aurait pas appris, puisque cet enseignement était suffisant jusqu'à récemment, d'un vétéran pourrait-il se transformer en docteur théoricien en si peu de temps ? Quand le formalisme philosophique naturel enseigne que l'esprit est électricité ou que l'animal est azote, ou même le mêmele sud ou le nord et ainsi de suite, ou le représenter, aussi simplement qu'il est exprimé ici, ou même concocté avec plus de terminologie, alors peut-être sur une telle puissance qui rassemble ce qui semble lointain, et sur la puissance dont souffre le sensuel au repos cette connexion, et qui lui donne ainsi l'apparence d'un concept, mais l'essentiel est qu'elle évite la nécessité d'exprimer le concept lui-même ou le sens de l'idée sensorielle - la personne inexpérimentée peut en être étonnée, vénérez en lui un génie profond ; ainsi que dans la gaieté de telles déterminations, puisqu'elles remplacent le concept abstrait par quelque chose de vivant et le rendent plus agréable, se réjouissent et se souhaitent du bonheur dans la camaraderie d'âme punie avec des actions si merveilleuses. L'habileté d'une telle sagesse s'apprend dès qu'il est facile de l'exercer ; sa répétition, lorsqu'elle est connue, devient aussi insupportable que la répétition d'un tour de passe-passe reconnu. L'instrument de ce formalisme uniforme n'est pas plus difficile à manier qu'une palette de peintre, qui ne contiendrait que deux couleurs, comme le rouge et le vert, pour colorer une surface avec celle-là s'il fallait une pièce historique, avec celle-là s'il s'agissait d'une pièce historique. il fallait un paysage. – Il serait difficile de décider ce qui est le plus grand, le confort avec lequel tout au ciel, sur terre et sous la terre est peint avec une telle peinture, ou la vanité de l'excellence de ce remède universel ; l'un soutient l'autre. Ce que cette méthode consistant à coller les quelques dispositions du schéma général à tout ce qui est céleste et terrestre, à toutes les formes naturelles et spirituelles et à tout classer ainsi, produit n'est rien de moins qu'un rapport limpide sur l'organisme de l'univers, à savoir un tableau. qui ressemble à un squelette avec des morceaux de papier collés ou aux rangées de boîtes de conserve fermées avec leurs étiquettes collées dans un magasin d'épices, qui sont si clairement l'une et l'autre dans d'autres, et comme là-bas la chair et le sang ont été retirés des os, mais ici la chose non vivante est cachée dans les boîtes, l'essence vivante de la chose a également été laissée de côté ou cachée. – Que cette manière se perfectionne en même temps en une peinture absolue monochromatique, en ce sens que, honteuse des différences du schéma, elle l'enfonce dans le vide de l'absolu comme appartenant à la réflexion, de sorte que l'identité pure, la blancheur sans forme , est établi, est déjà mentionné ci-dessus et a été remarqué. Cette même coloration du schème et ses déterminations inanimées et cette identité absolue, et le passage de l'une à l'autre, sont l'une égale à l'intellect mort l'autre, et égale à la connaissance extérieure.</p> <p>Mais non seulement l'homme excellent ne peut échapper au sort d'être privé de vie et d'esprit et, ainsi violé, de voir sa peau enveloppée dans une connaissance sans vie et sa vanité. Au contraire, le pouvoir qu'il exerce sur les esprits, sinon sur les esprits, peut encore être reconnu dans ce destin lui-même, ainsi que dans le développement de l'universalité et de la définition de la forme en laquelle consiste sa perfection, et qui seule permet que cette généralité est utilisée pour la superficialité.</p> <p>La science ne peut s'organiser qu'à travers la vie propre du concept ; En lui se trouve la détermination qui est collée extérieurement à l'existence à partir du schéma, l'âme auto-motrice du contenu accompli. Le mouvement des êtres est, d'une part, devenir quelque chose d'autre et ainsi devenir son contenu immanent ; d'autre part, il reprend en lui ce développement ou cette existence, c'est-à-dire se fait un moment et se simplifie en une détermination. Dans ce mouvement, la négativité est la distinction et la position de l'existence ; dans ce retour en soi, c'est le devenir d' une simplicité déterminée . Ainsi, le contenu ne montre pas sa détermination reçue et attachée à un autre, mais il se la donne et se positionne par rapport à lui-même pour devenir un moment et un lieu dans l'ensemble. L'esprit tabulaire garde pour lui la nécessité et le concept du contenu, ce qui constitue le concret, la réalité et le mouvement vivant de la chose qu'il classe, ou plutôt il ne garde pas cela pour lui, mais ne le connaît pas ; car s'il avait cette perspicacité, il le montrerait probablement. Il n'en connaît même pas la nécessité ; sinon il s'abstiendrait de schématiser, ou du moins n'en serait pas plus familier qu'avec une présentation de contenus ; Il affiche uniquement le contenu, mais ne fournit pas le contenu lui-même. – Si la détermination, même quelque chose comme le magnétisme, est concrète ou réelle en elle-même, alors elle a sombré dans quelque chose de mort, puisqu'elle ne fait qu'attribuer une autre existence et non pas comme la vie immanente de cette existence, ou comme elle est en elle, a sa vie native. et une autoproduction et une représentation particulières, est reconnue. L'accord formel laisse ce point principal à d'autres. – Au lieu d'approfondir le contenu immanent de la chose, il néglige toujours le tout et se place au-dessus de l'existence individuelle dont il parle, c'est-à-dire qu'il ne la voit pas du tout. Mais la connaissance scientifique exige plutôt de s'abandonner à la vie de l'objet, ou, ce qui revient au même, d'en avoir devant soi la nécessité intérieure et de l'exprimer. En s'immergeant dans son sujet, il oublie cette vue d'ensemble qui n'est que le reflet de la connaissance du contenu vers lui-même. Mais immergé dans la matière et s'éloignant dans son mouvement, il revient en lui-même, mais pas avant que l'accomplissement ou le contenu ne se replie sur lui-même, ne se simplifie en une détermination, ne se réduit à un côté d'une existence et ne passe dans sa vérité supérieure. Ainsi, l'ensemble simple et replié sur lui-même émerge de la richesse dans laquelle son reflet semblait perdu.</p> <p>Parce que, comme indiqué ci-dessus, la substance elle-même est le sujet, tout contenu est son propre reflet en lui-même. L'existence ou la substance d'une existence est l'identité de soi ; car son inégalité avec lui-même serait sa dissolution. Mais l'identité de soi est une pure abstraction ; mais c'est réfléchir . Quand je dis qualité , je dis simple précision ; par la qualité, une existence se distingue d'une autre, ou est une existence ; il est pour soi, ou bien il existe par cette simplicité avec lui-même. Mais c'est essentiellement l' idée . – Cela signifie qu'être, c'est penser ; C'est cette vision qui manque généralement au discours ordinaire et sans concept sur l'identité de la pensée et de l'être. - Parce que l'existence du Dasein est identité à soi ou pure abstraction, c'est l'abstraction de soi à soi, ou c'est lui-même son inégalité avec soi et sa dissolution, - sa propre intériorité et repli sur soi, - son devenir. – En raison de cette nature des êtres et dans la mesure où les êtres ont cette nature de connaissance, ce n'est pas l'activité qui traite le contenu comme quelque chose d'étranger, ni le reflet en soi hors du contenu ; La science n'est pas cet idéalisme qui a remplacé le dogmatisme assertif comme dogmatisme assurant ou le dogmatisme de la certitude de soi - mais parce que la connaissance voit le contenu rentrer dans son intériorité, son activité s'y plonge à la fois, car elle est le soi immanent du contenu, comme en même temps retourné à lui-même, car il est pure identité-soi dans l'altérité ; c'est donc la ruse qui, apparemment s'abstenant de l'activité, voit la détermination et sa vie concrète, précisément en ce qu'elle pense poursuivre son auto-conservation et son intérêt particulier, comme quelque chose de perverti, qui se dissout et devient le moment du tout. faire.</p> <p>Si le sens de l' entendement a été donné ci-dessus en termes de conscience de soi de la substance, alors ce qui a été dit ici montre clairement son sens en termes de sa détermination en tant qu'être. – L'existence est qualité, détermination même ou certaine simplicité, certaine pensée ; c'est l'esprit de l'existence. Cela signifie que c'est Nus qu'Anaxagore a reconnu pour la première fois comme l'être. Ceux après lui comprirent plus clairement la nature de l'existence en tant qu'Eidos ou Idée ; c'est-à-dire une certaine généralité, genre . Le terme Art semble être trop mesquin et trop peu pour les idées, pour le beau, le saint et l'éternel qui sévissent à cette époque. Mais en fait l'idée n'exprime ni plus ni moins que l'art. Mais on voit maintenant souvent une expression qui désigne définitivement un concept, dédaigné et préféré à un autre, ne serait-ce que parce qu'il appartient à une langue étrangère, le terme est enveloppé de brouillard et est enveloppé de brouillard. donc plus édifiant. – Précisément dans le fait que l'existence est déterminée comme espèce, c'est une simple pensée ; le nus , la simplicité, est la substance. En raison de sa simplicité ou de son identité, il apparaît solide et permanent. Mais cette identité-même est aussi de la négativité ; En conséquence, cette existence solide se dissout. Au début, la détermination semble être due au fait qu'elle se rapporte à Andrés , et que son mouvement lui est fait par une force étrangère ; mais le fait qu'il ait lui-même son altérité et qu'il soit un mouvement personnel est contenu dans la simplicité même de la pensée elle-même ; car c'est là la pensée autonome et distinctive, et notre propre intériorité, le concept pur . La compréhension est donc un devenir, et en tant que devenir, elle est rationalité .</p> <p>C'est dans cette nature de ce qui est, dans son être, dans son concept d'être, que la nécessité logique existe ; lui seul est le rationnel et le rythme du tout organique, il est tout autant la connaissance du contenu que le contenu est concept et essence - ou lui seul est le spéculatif . – La forme concrète, se mouvant elle-même, se fait simple détermination, s'élevant ainsi à une forme logique et étant dans son essentialité ; Leur existence concrète n'est que ce mouvement et est immédiatement existence logique. Il n'est donc pas nécessaire d'appliquer superficiellement un formalisme au contenu concret ; Le premier lui-même est la transition vers celui-ci, mais celui-ci cesse d'être ce formalisme externe parce que la forme est le devenir natif du contenu concret lui-même.</p> <p>Cette nature de la méthode scientifique, étant en partie indissociable du contenu et en partie déterminant son propre rythme, a, comme nous l'avons déjà mentionné, sa propre représentation dans la philosophie spéculative. – Ce qui est dit ici exprime le concept, mais ne peut s'appliquer qu'à une assurance anticipée. Sa vérité ne réside pas dans cet exposé partiellement narratif ; et est donc tout aussi peu réfutée lorsqu'on affirme que tel n'est pas le cas, mais plutôt qu'il en est ainsi et cela, lorsque des idées familières sont évoquées et racontées comme des vérités établies et connues, ou même comme quelque chose de nouveau du sanctuaire. de la vision divine intérieure servie et assurée. –Une telle réception est généralement la première réaction d'un savoir auquel quelque chose était inconnu, de s'opposer à lui, afin de sauvegarder sa liberté et sa propre vision, sa propre autorité contre celle des autres, car sous cette forme ce qui a été enregistré pour la première fois apparaît - également pour préserver les apparences et éliminer l'espèce de honte qui est censée résider dans le fait que quelque chose a été appris, tout comme dans l'acceptation applaudissante de l'inconnu, la réaction du même genre consiste dans ce qui, dans un autre domaine c'est le discours ultra-révolutionnaire et l'action était.</p> <p>Ce qui est important lorsqu'on étudie les sciences , c'est d' entreprendre l'effort du concept. Cela requiert une attention particulière à lui en tant que tel, aux déterminations simples, par exemple, de l'être-en-soi , de l'être-pour-soi , de l'identité-soi , etc. car ce sont des mouvements personnels si purs qu'on pourrait les appeler âmes, si leur terme ne désignait pas quelque chose de plus élevé que ceux-là. L'interruption des idées par le concept est tout aussi gênante pour l'habitude de courir sur les idées que pour la pensée formelle, qui argumente dans des pensées irréelles. Cette habitude peut être appelée une façon matérielle de penser, une conscience accidentelle qui est seulement immergée dans la matière, et qui a donc du mal à se sortir simultanément de la matière et à être avec elle-même. L'autre, le raisonnement, est l'absence de contenu et de vanité ; On attend de lui qu'il fasse l'effort d'abandonner cette liberté et, au lieu d'être le principe arbitrairement mouvant du contenu, d'y enfoncer cette liberté, de le laisser se mouvoir à travers sa propre nature, c'est-à-dire à travers le moi comme son propre , et cela pour regarder le mouvement. S'abstenir de s'impliquer dans le rythme immanent des concepts, ne pas y interférer par l'arbitraire et la sagesse autrement acquise - cette abstinence est en elle-même un moment essentiel d'attention au concept.</p> <p>Dans le comportement de raisonnement, il faut rendre plus visibles les deux côtés sur lesquels la pensée compréhensive s'oppose. – Dans certains cas, il se comporte négativement envers le contenu perçu et sait le réfuter et le détruire. Que ce ne soit pas le cas, cette intuition est purement négative , c'est la chose ultime qui ne se dépasse pas vers un nouveau contenu, mais pour avoir à nouveau un contenu, il faut faire quelque chose de différent de quelque part. C'est le reflet du moi vide, la vanité de sa connaissance. – Mais cette vanité n'exprime pas seulement que ce contenu est vain, mais aussi que cette intuition elle-même est vaine ; parce que c'est le négatif qui ne voit pas le positif en lui-même. Parce que cette réflexion ne prend pas elle-même en contenu sa négativité, elle n'est pas du tout dans la matière, mais toujours au-delà ; Il imagine donc que l'affirmation du vide va toujours plus loin qu'une vision pénétrante. D'autre part, comme nous l'avons montré plus haut, dans la pensée compréhensive, le négatif appartient au contenu lui-même et est le positif à la fois en tant que mouvement et détermination immanents et en tant que tout de celui-ci . Conçu en conséquence, c'est le négatif déterminé qui vient de ce mouvement, et donc aussi un contenu positif.</p> <p>Mais étant donné qu'une telle pensée a un contenu, qu'il s'agisse d'idées, de pensées ou d'un mélange des deux, elle a un autre aspect qui la rend difficile à comprendre. Sa nature étrange est étroitement liée à la nature mentionnée ci-dessus de l'idée elle-même, ou plutôt l'exprime telle qu'elle apparaît comme le mouvement qu'est l'appréhension pensante. – De même que dans son comportement négatif, dont nous venons de parler, la pensée raisonnante elle-même est le soi auquel renvoie le contenu, de même dans sa cognition positive le soi est un sujet imaginé auquel le contenu se réfère comme accident et prédicat. Ce sujet constitue le socle auquel il se rattache et sur lequel se déroule le mouvement. La situation est différente dans la pensée conceptuelle. Puisque le concept est le moi même de l'objet, qui se présente comme son devenir , il n'est pas un sujet au repos qui porte les accidents sans bouger, mais plutôt le concept qui bouge et reprend en lui ses déterminations. Dans ce mouvement, ce sujet au repos lui-même périt ; Elle entre dans les différences et le contenu et constitue plutôt la détermination, c'est-à-dire le contenu différencié ainsi que le mouvement de celui-ci, au lieu de lui être opposé. Le fondement solide du raisonnement sur le sujet au repos fluctue donc, et seul ce mouvement lui-même devient objet. Le sujet qui accomplit son contenu cesse de le dépasser et ne peut avoir d'autres prédicats ou accidents. À l'inverse, la distraction du contenu est liée au soi ; ce n'est pas l'universel qui viendrait à plusieurs personnes libres du sujet. Le contenu n'est donc plus un prédicat du sujet, mais est la substance, l'essence et le concept de ce dont nous parlons. La pensée imaginative, puisque sa nature est de continuer avec les accidents ou les prédicats, et à juste titre, parce qu'ils ne sont que des prédicats et des accidents, de les dépasser, devient la substance, car ce qui dans la phrase a lui-même la forme d'un prédicat est freiné dans sa progression. Pour l'imaginer ainsi, il subit une contre-attaque. Partant du sujet, comme s'il restait au fond, elle constate que, puisque le prédicat est plutôt la substance, le sujet passe au prédicat et est par là aboli ; et depuis que ce qui apparaît comme un prédicat est devenu une masse entière et indépendante, la pensée ne peut plus errer librement, mais est retenue par cette lourdeur. – Sinon le sujet passe en premier comme objectifsoi fixe pris comme base ; A partir de là se poursuit le mouvement nécessaire vers la diversité des déterminations ou prédicats ; Ici, le Je connaissant lui-même prend la place de ce sujet et constitue le lien entre les prédicats et le sujet qui les détient. Mais puisque ce premier sujet entre dans les déterminations elles-mêmes et est leur âme, le deuxième sujet, à savoir le sujet connaissant, trouve, toujours dans le prédicat, ce dont il en a déjà fini et au-delà duquel il veut retourner en lui-même, et de ce fait Déplacer le prédicat pour pouvoir être le faire, plutôt que de raisonner sur la question de savoir si tel ou tel prédicat doit lui être attaché, a plus à voir avec le soi du contenu, et ne devrait pas être pour lui-même, mais avec il.</p> <p>Formellement, ce qui a été dit peut être exprimé de telle manière que la nature du jugement ou de la phrase en général, qui inclut la différence entre sujet et prédicat, est détruite par la phrase spéculative, et la phrase identique, que la première devient, contrecarre ce dernier contient des conditions. – Ce conflit entre la forme d'une phrase en général et l'unité du concept qui la détruit est semblable à celui qui s'opère dans le rythme entre la métrique et l'accent. Le rythme résulte du centre flottant et de l'union des deux. Ainsi, dans la phrase philosophique également, l'identité du sujet et du prédicat ne doit pas détruire la différence entre eux, exprimée par la forme de la phrase, mais plutôt leur unité doit émerger comme une harmonie. La forme de la phrase est l'apparition du sens particulier ou de l'accent qui distingue son accomplissement ; Mais le fait que le prédicat exprime la substance et que le sujet lui-même tombe dans le général est l' unité dans laquelle cet accent s'efface.</p> <p>Pour expliquer ce qui a été dit par des exemples, dans la phrase : Dieu est l'être , le prédicat est l'être ; il a un sens substantiel dans lequel le sujet se dissout. Ici, l'être ne doit pas être un prédicat, mais plutôt l'essence ; Du coup, Dieu semble cesser d'être ce qu'il est par la position de la proposition, à savoir le sujet fixe. – La pensée, au lieu de progresser dans le passage du sujet au prédicat, se sent plutôt inhibée parce que le sujet est perdu et est renvoyée à la pensée du sujet parce qu'elle lui manque ; ou bien il trouve, puisque le prédicat lui-même s'exprime comme sujet, comme être, comme essence qui épuise la nature du sujet, le sujet aussi directement dans le prédicat ; et maintenant, au lieu de se voir attribuer la place libre du raisonnement à l'intérieur du prédicat, il est encore absorbé par le contenu, ou du moins il y a une demande d'y être absorbé. – Alors même si l'on dit : le réel est l' universel , le réel disparaît comme sujet, dans son prédicat. Le général ne doit pas seulement avoir le sens du prédicat, pour que la phrase dise que le réel est général, mais le général doit exprimer l'essence du réel. – La pensée perd donc une grande partie du solide fondement objectif qu'elle avait dans le sujet lorsqu'elle y est renvoyée dans le prédicat, et dans le prédicat elle ne retourne pas en elle-même, mais dans le sujet du contenu.</p> <p>Les plaintes concernant l'incompréhensibilité des écrits philosophiques reposent en grande partie sur cette inhibition inhabituelle, alors que les autres conditions d'éducation permettant de les comprendre sont présentes chez l'individu. Nous voyons dans ce qui vient d'être dit le fondement de l'accusation très précise qui est souvent portée contre eux, qu'il faut lire plusieurs fois plusieurs choses avant de pouvoir les comprendre - une accusation qui est censée contenir quelque chose d'inconvenant et de définitif, de sorte que si elle est fondée, aucune autre objection n'est admise. – Ce qui précède montre clairement ce que cela signifie. La phrase philosophique, parce qu'elle est une phrase, donne lieu à l'opinion sur la relation habituelle entre sujet et prédicat et sur le comportement habituel de la connaissance. Ce comportement et son opinion détruisent son contenu philosophique ; l'opinion apprend qu'elle est signifiée différemment de ce qu'elle voulait dire, et cette correction de son opinion oblige la connaissance à revenir à la phrase et à la formuler maintenant différemment.</p> <p>Une difficulté qu'il convient d'éviter est le mélange du mode spéculatif et du mode raisonnement, quand tantôt ce que dit le sujet a le sens de son concept, mais tantôt seulement le sens de son prédicat ou de son accident. – Une voie perturbe l'autre, et seule cette exposition philosophique atteindrait la plasticité si elle excluait strictement le type de relation habituelle entre les parties d'une phrase.</p> <p>En fait, la pensée non spéculative a aussi son droit, qui est valable mais non observé à la manière de la proposition spéculative. Le fait que la forme de la phrase soit abolie ne doit pas nécessairement se produire de manière immédiate , ni à travers le simple contenu de la phrase. Il faut plutôt exprimer ce mouvement contraire ; Non seulement cette inhibition intérieure doit être représentée , mais aussi le repli du concept sur lui-même . Ce mouvement, qui constitue ce que la preuve devrait autrement réaliser, est le mouvement dialectique de la proposition elle-même. Lui seul est le véritable spéculatif, et seule son expression est la représentation spéculative. En tant que proposition, le spéculatif n'est que l' inhibition intérieure et le retour inexistant de l'être en lui-même. Nous nous retrouvons donc souvent relégués à cette perception intérieure par les exposés philosophiques, et nous nous épargnons ainsi la présentation du mouvement dialectique de la phrase que nous réclamions. – La phrase est destinée à exprimer ce qu'est la vérité, mais elle est essentiellement le sujet ; en tant que tel, il ne s'agit que du mouvement dialectique, de cette marche auto-génératrice, aller et retour. – Dans le cas d'autres cognitions, l'évidence constitue ce côté de l'intériorité exprimée. Mais après que la dialectique a été séparée de la preuve, le concept de preuve philosophique a été perdu.</p> <p>On peut rappeler ici que le mouvement dialectique a aussi des propositions comme parties ou éléments ; La difficulté signalée semble donc toujours revenir et être une difficulté de la chose elle-même. – Ceci est similaire à ce qui se passe avec la preuve ordinaire, dans la mesure où les raisons qu'elle utilise nécessitent elles-mêmes une justification, et ainsi de suite à l'infini. Mais cette forme de justification et de conditionnement appartient à cette preuve dont le mouvement dialectique est différent, et donc à la connaissance extérieure. En ce qui le concerne lui-même, son élément est le concept pur ; il a donc un contenu qui est de part en part un sujet. Il n'existe donc pas de tel contenu qui agirait comme sujet sous-jacent et qui aurait sa signification de prédicat ; la phrase est immédiatement une forme vide. – En dehors du moi sensuellement vu ou imaginé, c'est avant tout le nom en tant que nom qui désigne le sujet pur, le sujet vide et sans concept. Pour cette raison, il peut être utile, par exemple, d'éviter le nom Dieu , car ce mot n'est pas immédiatement un concept, mais le nom même, le reste solide du sujet sous-jacent. D'autre part puisque, par exemple, l'être, ou l'un, l'individu, le sujet lui-même, etc., désignent directement des concepts. – Même si des vérités spéculatives sont dites sur ce sujet, leur contenu manque encore du concept immanent parce qu'il n'existe qu'en tant que sujet au repos et, de ce fait, elles prennent facilement la forme d'une simple édification. – De ce point de vue, l'obstacle qui réside dans l'habitude de comprendre le prédicat spéculatif selon la forme de la phrase, et non comme concept et essence, peut être accru et réduit par la faute de la présentation philosophique elle-même. La représentation, fidèle à la compréhension de la nature du spéculatif, doit conserver la forme dialectique et ne rien inclure dans la mesure où elle est comprise et est le concept.</p> <p>Dans la mesure où le comportement raisonné entrave l'étude de la philosophie, c'est l'imagination non raisonnante de vérités établies, à laquelle le propriétaire ne pense pas devoir revenir, mais les prend plutôt comme base et croit pouvoir les exprimer, comme ainsi que les juger et les dénoncer à travers eux. De ce point de vue, il est particulièrement nécessaire que l'on revienne sérieusement à la philosophie. De toutes les sciences, arts, compétences et métiers, la conviction est que pour les posséder, de multiples efforts pour les apprendre et les pratiquer sont nécessaires. En ce qui concerne la philosophie, en revanche, le préjugé semble actuellement prévaloir selon lequel, même si tout le monde a des yeux et des doigts et reçoit du cuir et des outils, il est donc incapable de fabriquer des chaussures, mais que chacun est capable de philosopher directement et de juger que la philosophie comprend, parce qu'il a l'étendard de sa raison naturelle pour le faire - comme s'il n'avait pas aussi l'étendard d'une chaussure à son pied. – Il semble que le manque de connaissances et d'études soit la raison de la possession de la philosophie et qu'elle finisse là où commence l'autre. On considère souvent qu'il s'agit d'une connaissance formelle dépourvue de contenu, et l'on ne comprend pas très bien que toute vérité dans une connaissance ou une science en termes de contenu ne peut mériter ce nom que si elle a été produite par la philosophie ; que les autres sciences, qu'elles essayent autant qu'elles le veulent de raisonner sans philosophie, ne peuvent avoir en elles la vie, l'esprit, la vérité sans elle.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne la philosophie proprement dite, nous voyons le long chemin de l'éducation, le mouvement riche et profond par lequel l'esprit accède à la connaissance, comme la révélation directe du sens divin et commun, qui ne diffère ni des autres connaissances ni de la connaissance actuelle. Qui a essayé et s'est formé à la philosophie, se voit immédiatement comme un parfait équivalent et un aussi bon substitut que, par exemple, la chicorée est vantée comme substitut du café. Il n'est pas agréable de constater que l'ignorance et la brutalité informe et insipide elle-même, incapable de concentrer sa pensée sur une proposition abstraite, encore moins sur l'enchaînement de plusieurs, détruisent tantôt la liberté et la tolérance de pensée, tantôt le génie à assurer. Cette dernière, comme c'est le cas aujourd'hui en philosophie, était autrefois également répandue en poésie ; mais au lieu de poésie, si la production de ce génie avait un sens, elle produisait de la prose triviale ou, si elle allait au-delà, des discours fous. Ainsi maintenant, une philosophie naturelle, qui se considère trop bonne pour le concept et, par manquement, pour la pensée contemplative et poétique, met sur le marché des combinaisons arbitraires d'un imaginaire qui n'est désorganisé que par la pensée - des structures qui ne sont ni poisson ni chair, ni la poésie ni la philosophie ne le sont.</p> <p>D'un autre côté, coulant dans le lit tranquille du sens commun, la philosophie naturelle présente une rhétorique de vérités insignifiantes. Si l'on lui reproche l'insignifiance de cela, il assure en revanche que le sens et l'accomplissement sont présents dans son cœur, et doivent l'être aussi chez les autres, puisqu'en général c'est avec l'innocence du cœur et de la pureté de la conscience et choses ultimes similaires Avoir dit signifie contre lequel il n'y a aucune objection et rien de plus ne peut être exigé. Mais il fallait veiller à ce que le meilleur ne reste pas à l'intérieur, mais soit mis en lumière depuis ce puits. On a pu depuis longtemps s'épargner la peine de présenter des vérités ultimes de ce genre, parce qu'on les trouve depuis longtemps dans le catéchisme, dans les proverbes du peuple, etc. – Il n'est pas difficile de saisir de telles vérités en raison de leur indétermination ou de leur caractère tordu, et de signaler souvent en soi le contraire direct de leur conscience. En essayant de sortir de la confusion qui se crée en lui, il tombera dans de nouvelles confusions et arrivera probablement à la conclusion que ceci et cela sont décidément du sophisme - un slogan du bon sens contre la Raison instruite, comme le expression rêveuse, l'ignorance de la philosophie l'a constaté une fois pour toutes. - En s'appuyant sur le ressenti, son oracle intérieur, il en a fini contre celui qui n'est pas d'accord ; Il doit expliquer qu'il n'a plus rien à dire à quiconque ne trouve pas et ne ressent pas la même chose en lui-même - en d'autres termes, il piétine les racines de l'humanité. Car la nature de ceux-ci est de faire pression pour obtenir un accord avec les autres et leur existence uniquement dans la communauté de conscience qui a été créée. L'anti-humain, l'animal, consiste à rester coincé dans les sentiments et à ne pouvoir communiquer qu'à travers eux.</p> <p>Si l'on demandait une voie royale vers la science, on ne pourrait en donner de plus commode que celle de s'appuyer sur le bon sens et, pour progresser avec le temps et la philosophie, des revues d'écrits philosophiques, par exemple les préfaces et la première il faut lire les paragraphes de celui-ci, car ceux-ci donnent les principes généraux dont tout dépend, et cela, en plus de la note historique, aussi l'évaluation, qui, parce qu'il s'agit d'une évaluation, va au-delà de ce qui est évalué. Ce chemin commun se déroule en robe de chambre, mais en robe de grand prêtre, l'exaltation de l'éternel, du saint, de l'infini l'accompagne - un chemin qui est lui-même l'être immédiat au centre, le génie des idées profondes et originales et des éclairs élevés. de pensée. Cependant, de même qu'une telle profondeur ne révèle pas encore la source de l'être, de même ces fusées ne sont pas encore l'Empyrée. Les véritables pensées et connaissances scientifiques ne peuvent être acquises que grâce au travail du concept. Lui seul peut produire l'universalité de la connaissance, qui n'est ni l'indétermination et la pauvreté communes de l'entendement humain commun, mais plutôt une connaissance instruite et complète - ni l'extraordinaire généralité des dispositions de la raison, qui est corrompue par l'indolence et l'orgueil de l'esprit. le génie, mais plutôt celui de sa forme native, la vérité développée, qui est susceptible d'être la propriété de toute raison consciente d'elle-même.</p> <p>Puisque je place ce par quoi la science existe dans le mouvement propre du concept, la considération selon laquelle les aspects mentionnés ci-dessus et d'autres aspects externes des idées de notre temps sur la nature et la forme de la vérité s'en écartent, voire sont complètement contraires à cela semble être une tentative de présenter le système scientifique de telle manière qu'il ne promet pas un accueil favorable. En attendant, je peux considérer que, si, par exemple, l'excellence de la philosophie de Platon est parfois placée dans ses mythes scientifiquement sans valeur, il y eut aussi des époques, qu'on appelle même des époques d'enthousiasme, où la philosophie aristotélicienne était respectée pour sa profondeur spéculative. et le Parménide de Platon, sans doute la plus grande œuvre d'art de la dialectique antique , était considéré comme la véritable révélation et l'expression positive de la vie divine , et même avec beaucoup d'obscurité sur ce que c'est. l'extase , cette extase incomprise ne devrait en réalité être rien d'autre que le pur concept - qu'en outre, l'excellence de la philosophie de notre temps met elle-même sa valeur dans la science, et même si d'autres la prennent différemment, elle ne s'affirme que par elle dans la pratique. Je peux donc également espérer que cette tentative visant à justifier la science par rapport au concept et à la présenter dans son élément propre trouvera son chemin dans la vérité intérieure de la question. Nous devons être convaincus que la vérité a la nature de pénétrer quand son heure est venue, et qu'elle n'apparaît que lorsqu'elle est venue, et donc n'apparaît jamais trop tôt ni ne trouve un public immature ; aussi que l'individu a besoin de cet effet pour se prouver dans ce qui est encore sa cause unique et pour éprouver la conviction, qui n'appartient qu'au particulier, comme quelque chose de général. Ici, cependant, le public doit souvent être distingué de ceux qui en sont les représentants et les orateurs. Le premier se comporte différemment du second à bien des égards, même dans des directions opposées. S'il assume avec bonhomie le fait qu'il n'aime pas une œuvre philosophique, alors, eux, sûrs de leur compétence, rejettent toute la faute sur l'écrivain. L'effet de celui-ci est plus silencieux que les actions de ces morts lorsqu'ils enterrent leurs morts. Si la compréhension générale est maintenant plus instruite, si votre curiosité est plus alerte et si votre jugement est déterminé plus rapidement, de sorte que les pieds de ceux qui vous mèneront à l'extérieur sont déjà à la porte, alors ce que l'on peut souvent en distinguer, c'est le processus plus lent. l'effet, c'est-à-dire l'attention, qui a été renforcée par des assurances impressionnantes, ainsi que la correction du blâme jetable et le fait de donner à une partie un co-monde seulement après un certain temps, tandis qu'une autre n'a plus de postérité après cela.</p> <p>Parce que, d'ailleurs, à une époque où la généralité de l'esprit est devenue beaucoup plus forte et où l'individualité, comme elle devrait l'être, est devenue beaucoup plus indifférente, la partie qui est dans l'œuvre entière tient également à sa L'ampleur et la richesse développées et les exigences de l'esprit incombant à l'activité de l'individu ne peuvent être que minimes, alors, comme l'exige la nature de la science, l'individu doit d'autant plus s'oublier lui-même et devenir et faire ce qu'il peut. mais il doit aussi faire moins avec lui être exigé, tout comme il peut attendre moins de lui-même et exiger pour lui-même.</p> <p>Introduction</p> <p>C'est une idée naturelle qu'avant que la philosophie n'aborde le sujet lui-même, à savoir la connaissance réelle de ce qui est dans la vérité, il faut d'abord se mettre d'accord sur la connaissance comme l'outil par lequel on prend possession de l'absolu, ou est considéré comme le moyen par lequel on le voit. L'inquiétude semble légitime, en partie parce qu'il existe différents types de connaissances, et que l'une d'elles est plus capable que l'autre d'atteindre ce but final, et donc par un mauvais choix entre elles, - en partie aussi parce que la connaissance est une faculté d'un certain sans une détermination plus précise de sa nature et de ses limites, les nuages ​​de l'erreur sont saisis au lieu du ciel de la vérité. Cette préoccupation doit même se transformer en conviction que tout le début de l'acquisition de ce qui est en soi par la connaissance pour la conscience est absurde dans son concept, et qu'il existe une frontière qui les sépare absolument entre la connaissance et la chute Absolue. Car si la connaissance est l'outil pour prendre le contrôle de l'être absolu, on remarque immédiatement que l'application d'un outil à une chose ne la laisse pas telle qu'elle est en elle-même, mais opère avec elle une formation et un changement. Ou si la connaissance n'est pas un outil de notre activité, mais plutôt un médium passif par lequel la lumière de la vérité nous parvient, alors nous la recevons non pas telle qu'elle est en elle-même, mais telle qu'elle est à travers et dans ce médium. Dans les deux cas, on utilise un moyen qui produit directement le contraire de sa fin ; ou plutôt, ce qui est absurde, c'est que nous utilisions n'importe quel moyen. Il semble bien que ce problème puisse être résolu en connaissant le fonctionnement de l' outil , car il permet de soustraire du résultat la part qui appartient à l'outil dans l'idée que l'on reçoit de l'Absolu à travers lui, et ainsi de suite. pur. En fait, cette amélioration à elle seule ne ferait que nous ramener là où nous en étions auparavant. Si nous retirons d'une chose formée ce que l'outil lui a fait, alors la chose - ici l'Absolu - est tout aussi importante pour nous qu'elle l'était avant cet effort inutile. Si l'absolu devait être rapproché de nous par l'intermédiaire de l'outil sans rien y changer, comme par exemple le bâton de chaux de l'oiseau, alors il serait probablement victime de cette astuce s'il n'était pas déjà avec nous en soi et ne voulait pas être là pour se moquer ; Car une astuce dans ce cas serait de reconnaître que, par ses multiples efforts, l'expression fait quelque chose de complètement différent que simplement produire une relation immédiate et donc sans effort. Ou si le test de reconnaissance que nous, en tant que médium,imaginez, nous enseigne la loi de sa réfraction, il ne sert à rien non plus de la soustraire au résultat ; car ce n'est pas l'éclatement du rayon, mais le rayon lui-même, par lequel la vérité nous touche, qui est la connaissance, et si celle-ci était soustraite, seule la direction pure ou le lieu vide nous aurait été indiqué.</p> <p>En attendant, si la peur de tomber dans l'erreur suscite une méfiance à l'égard de la science, qui se met à l'œuvre sans réserve et sait réellement, alors on ne voit pas pourquoi on ne devrait pas, à l'inverse, se méfier de cette méfiance et s'inquiéter de La peur de se tromper est déjà l'erreur elle-même. En fait, elle présuppose quelque chose, à savoir certaines choses, comme vérité, et fonde ses préoccupations et ses conséquences sur cela, qui doit elle-même être vérifiée au préalable pour voir si c'est la vérité. Cela présuppose des idées sur la connaissance en tant qu'outil et support , ainsi qu'une différence entre nous et cette connaissance ; Mais avant tout, le fait que l'absolu soit d'un côté et la connaissance de l'autre, en soi et séparée de l'absolu, est quelque chose de réel, ou par là la connaissance qui, étant en dehors de l'absolu, est aussi en dehors de l'absolu. la vérité est, mais soyez vrai ; une hypothèse selon laquelle ce qu'on appelle la peur de l'erreur se révèle plutôt être une peur de la vérité.</p> <p>Cette conséquence vient de ce que seul l'absolu est vrai, ou que seul le vrai est absolu. Elle peut être rejetée à cause de la différence qu'une connaissance qui ne connaît pas, comme le veut la science, l'absolu, mais qui est également vraie ; et la connaissance en général, si elle est incapable de saisir la même chose, mais est néanmoins capable d'autres vérités. Mais nous pouvons maintenant voir que de tels va-et-vient équivaut à une distinction trouble entre une vérité absolue et une autre vérité, et que l'absolu, la connaissance, etc., sont des mots qui présupposent un sens qui doit d'abord être atteint pour pouvoir pour réaliser.</p> <p>Au lieu d'utiliser des idées et des paroles aussi inutiles pour s'emparer de la connaissance comme d'un outil, de l'absolu, ou comme d'un moyen par lequel nous voyons la vérité, etc. - conditions dans lesquelles toutes ces idées de connaissance de l'absolu et d'absolu qui est séparé de la connaissance - au lieu des excuses que l'incapacité de la science crée à partir du présupposé de telles conditions afin de se libérer de l'effort de la science et en même temps de se faire une réputation d'un effort sérieux et zélé, et au lieu de lutter pour trouver des réponses à tout cela, elles pourraient être carrément rejetées comme des idées accidentelles et arbitraires, et l'utilisation associée de mots comme l'absolu, le savoir, aussi l'objectif et le subjectif, et d'innombrables autres , dont la signification est supposée être de notoriété publique, peut même être considérée comme une fraude. Car prétendre, en partie que sa signification est généralement connue, en partie aussi qu'on a son propre concept, semble plutôt sauver l'essentiel, à savoir donner ce concept. D'un autre côté, il serait plus juste d'éviter la peine de prêter attention à de telles idées et à de tels dictons, qui visent à conjurer la science elle-même, car ils ne constituent qu'une vaine apparence de la connaissance, qui disparaît immédiatement devant l'homme. la science émerge. Mais la science, telle qu'elle apparaît, est elle-même un phénomène ; leur apparition n'a pas encore été réalisée et élargie dans leur vérité. Il n'est pas pertinent ici d'imaginer qu'il s'agit de l'apparence parce qu'elle apparaît à côté de quelque chose d'autre , ou d'appeler cette autre fausse connaissance son apparence. Mais la science doit se libérer de cette illusion ; et elle ne peut le faire qu'en se retournant contre lui. Car elle ne peut pas simplement rejeter une connaissance qui n'est pas vraie en tant que vision commune des choses, et affirmer qu'il s'agit d'un type de connaissance complètement différent et que cette connaissance n'est rien du tout pour elle ; ni compter sur la punition de quelqu'un de meilleur en lui-même. Par cette assurance, elle déclara que son être était sa force ; mais la fausse connaissance prétend aussi qu'elle existe et assure que la science n'est rien pour elle ; unMais l'assurance sèche est considérée comme tout aussi différente. Encore moins peut-il faire appel à la meilleure connaissance qui existe dans la connaissance non vraie et qui elle-même en est le pointeur ; car d'une part cela ferait aussi appel à un être ; mais d'autre part, sur lui-même, plutôt que sur la manière dont il est dans la connaissance non vraie, c'est-à-dire sur une mauvaise manière d'être, et sur son apparence plutôt que sur ce qu'il est en soi. Pour cette raison, la présentation des connaissances qui apparaissent doit être effectuée ici.</p> <p>Parce que cette représentation n'a pour objet que la connaissance apparente, elle n'apparaît pas elle-même comme la science libre évoluant sous sa forme particulière, mais de ce point de vue, elle peut être considérée comme le chemin de la conscience naturelle qui pénètre vers la vraie connaissance. à prendre ; ou comme le chemin de l'âme, qui parcourt la série de ses formations comme des stations qui lui sont fixées par sa nature, de sorte qu'elle se purifie en esprit en atteignant la connaissance de ce qu'elle est en elle-même par l'expérience complète d'elle-même.</p> <p>La conscience naturelle s'avérera n'être qu'un concept de connaissance, ou non une véritable connaissance. Mais comme il se considère directement comme connaissance réelle, ce chemin a pour lui une signification négative, et pour lui il s'apparente plutôt à une perte de soi, qui est la réalisation du concept ; parce que de cette façon, il perd sa vérité. On peut donc y voir la voie du doute , ou plus exactement la voie du désespoir ; Ce qu'on entend habituellement par doute ne se produit pas en lui, un ébranlement de telle ou telle vérité supposée, suivi d'une disparition propre du doute et d'un retour à cette vérité, de sorte qu'à la fin l'affaire est prise comme avant. C'est plutôt la vision consciente du caractère mensonger de la connaissance qui apparaît, pour laquelle la chose la plus réelle est ce qui n'est en vérité que le concept non réalisé. Ce scepticisme auto-réalisateur n'est donc pas ce pour quoi le zèle sérieux pour la vérité et la science imagine s'être préparé et équipé ; à savoir avec l' intention , en science, de ne pas s'abandonner aux idées des autres sur l'autorité, mais de tout examiner soi-même et de suivre uniquement ses propres convictions, ou mieux encore, de tout produire soi-même et de considérer uniquement ses propres actions comme vraies.La série de formations que traverse la conscience sur ce chemin est plutôt l'histoire détaillée de la formation de la conscience elle-même en science. Cette intention présente l'éducation de la manière simple de l'intention comme étant immédiatement faite et réalisée ; Mais cette voie est la véritable mise en œuvre de ce mensonge. Cependant, suivre ses propres convictions, c'est bien plus que s'abandonner à l'autorité ; Mais en inversant une croyance fondée sur l'autorité en une croyance fondée sur sa propre conviction, le contenu de la croyance n'est pas nécessairement modifié et l'erreur est remplacée par la vérité. La seule différence entre être coincé dans un système d'opinion et de préjugés fondés sur l'autorité d'autrui ou sur sa propre conviction est la vanité qui accompagne cette dernière voie. D'un autre côté, le scepticisme, qui se concentre sur l'ensemble de la conscience apparente, rend d'abord l'esprit apte à examiner ce qu'est la vérité en provoquant le désespoir face aux idées, pensées et opinions dites naturelles, qu'il est indifférent d'appeler ses propres idées. propre ou celui des autres, et dont la conscience qui s'apprête à examiner est encore remplie et affligée, mais est donc en réalité incapable de ce qu'elle veut entreprendre.</p> <p>La complétude des formes de conscience irréelle résultera de la nécessité même de progression et de connexion. Pour rendre cela compréhensible, on peut généralement noter d'avance que la représentation de la conscience non-vraie dans son mensonge n'est pas un mouvement purement négatif . La conscience naturelle a généralement une vision unilatérale de la chose ; et une connaissance qui fait de cette unilatéralité son essence est l'une des formes de la conscience inachevée, qui tombe dans le cours même du chemin et s'y présentera. C'est notamment le scepticisme qui voit toujours le néant pur dans le résultat et fait abstraction du fait que ce néant est bien le néant de ce dont il résulte . Mais le néant, pris comme le néant de ce dont il vient, est bien le véritable résultat ; Il est donc lui-même spécifique et possède un contenu. Le scepticisme, qui aboutit à l'abstraction du néant ou du vide, ne peut pas aller plus loin, mais doit attendre de voir si et quoi quelque chose de nouveau se présente à lui pour le jeter dans le même abîme vide. D'autre part, puisque le résultat est compris tel qu'il est réellement, comme une certaine négation, une nouvelle forme apparaît immédiatement et la transition s'effectue dans la négation, de sorte que la progression à travers la série complète des formes se produit automatiquement.</p> <p>Mais le but est tout aussi nécessaire à la connaissance que la série de progressions ; C'est là où il n'a plus besoin de se dépasser, où il se trouve, et le concept correspond à l'objet, l'objet au concept. Les progrès vers cet objectif sont donc imparables et la satisfaction ne peut être trouvée dans aucune station précédente. Ce qui se limite à une vie naturelle ne peut à lui seul dépasser son existence immédiate ; mais il est poussé au-delà de lui par autre chose, et cet arrachement est sa mort. Mais la conscience est son concept pour soi , dépassant ainsi directement le limité et, puisque ce limité lui appartient, au-delà d'elle-même ; Chez l'individu, l'au-delà s'offre à lui en même temps, même s'il n'est, comme dans la perception spatiale, qu'à côté du limité. La conscience laisse donc cette violence gâcher sa satisfaction limitée envers elle-même. Lorsqu'elle ressent cette violence, la peur de la vérité peut très bien reculer et s'efforcer de préserver ce qui est menacé de perte. Mais elle ne trouve pas la paix ; c'est qu'elle veut rester debout dans une indolence irréfléchie ; la pensée atrophie l'étourderie, et son inquiétude trouble l'indolence ; ou qu'elle s'impose comme sensibilité, qui assure que tout est bon à sa manière ; Cette assurance souffre aussi de la violence de la raison, qui ne considère pas quelque chose comme bon précisément parce qu'il s'agit d'une espèce. Ou bien la peur de la vérité peut se cacher d'elle-même et des autres derrière l'apparence, comme si c'était précisément le zèle ardent pour la vérité elle-même qui lui rendait si difficile, voire impossible, la recherche d'une autre vérité que la seule que la vanité continue de faire. se détourne de l'être plutôt que de toutes les pensées que l'on a de soi-même ou des autres ; Cette vanité, qui sait déjouer toute vérité, en revient en elle-même, et se repaît de son propre entendement, qui sait toujours dissoudre toutes les pensées et ne trouver que le moi sec au lieu de tout contenu, est une satisfaction laissée à soi. il le doit lui-même, car il fuit l'universel et ne recherche que l'être pour soi.</p> <p>De même que cela a été dit provisoirement et en général sur la manière et la nécessité de la progression, il peut être utile de rappeler quelque chose sur la méthode d'exécution . Cette présentation comme rapport de la science à la connaissance qui apparaît , et présentée comme une enquête et un test de la réalité de la connaissance , ne semble pas pouvoir avoir lieu sans un préalable comme base . Car le test consiste dans l'application d'une norme supposée, et dans l'égalité ou l'inégalité qui en résulte de ce qui est testé, avec elle la décision quant à savoir si c'est bien ou mal ; et l'étalon en général, et de même la science si c'était l'étalon, est supposé comme l' essence ou comme l'en-soi . Mais ici, là où la science apparaît pour la première fois, ni elle-même ni quoi qu'elle soit ne s'est justifiée comme essence ou comme en-soi ; et sans cela, il semble qu'aucun examen ne puisse avoir lieu.</p> <p>Cette contradiction et son élimination apparaîtront plus clairement si nous nous rappelons d'abord les déterminations abstraites de la connaissance et de la vérité telles qu'elles se produisent dans la conscience. Cela distingue quelque chose de lui-même, auquel il se réfère également ; ou, comme on l'exprime, c'est quelque chose pour la même chose ; et le côté spécifique de ce rapport , ou de l' être de quelque chose pour une conscience, c'est la connaissance. Mais on distingue l'être-en-soi de cet être pour un autre ; ce qui relève de la connaissance s'en distingue aussi, et se pose comme étant en dehors de cette relation ; le côté de cet en-soi s'appelle vérité . Ce qu'il y a réellement dans ces déterminations ne nous importe pas ici, car puisque la connaissance apparaissante est notre objet, ses déterminations sont d'abord reprises telles qu'elles se présentent immédiatement ; et la manière dont ils ont été appréhendés est la façon dont ils se présentent.</p> <p>Si nous examinons maintenant la vérité de la connaissance, il semble que nous examinions ce qu'elle est en soi . Dans cette enquête seule, c'est notre objet, c'est pour nous ; et l' en-soi qui en résulterait serait plutôt son être pour nous ; ce que nous prétendrions être son essence, non pas sa vérité, mais seulement notre connaissance de lui. L'essence ou la norme tomberait en nous, et ce qui serait comparé à elle et ce qui devait être décidé par cette comparaison ne devrait pas nécessairement la reconnaître.</p> <p>Mais la nature de l'objet que nous examinons dépasse cette séparation ou cette apparence de séparation et de présupposé. La conscience établit elle-même son standard, et l'investigation sera ainsi une comparaison d'elle-même avec elle-même ; car la distinction qui vient d'être faite relève de cela. En lui, il y a une chose pour une autre, ou en général il y a en lui la détermination du moment de la connaissance ; En même temps, cet autre n'est pas seulement pour lui , mais aussi en dehors de cette relation ou en soi : l'instant de vérité. Nous avons donc la norme qu'elle établit pour mesurer sa connaissance par rapport à ce que la conscience déclare en elle-même comme étant l' en-soi ou la vérité . Si l'on appelle connaissance le concept , l'essence ou la vérité , ou l'être ou l' objet , alors le test consiste à voir si le concept correspond à l'objet. Mais si l'on appelle l'essence ou l'en-soi de l'objet le concept et, d'autre part, comprenons l' objet comme un objet , c'est-à-dire tel qu'il est pour un autre , alors le test consiste à voir si l'objet correspond à son concept. . On peut clairement voir que les deux sont identiques ; Mais l'essentiel est de constater ceci pour toute l'enquête, que ces deux moments, concept et objet, être-pour-un-autre et être-en-soi , tombent dans le savoir que nous enquêtons, et avec lui nous n'avons pas besoin de apporter des normes avec nous et appliquer nos idées et nos réflexions à l'enquête ; en les omettant, nous parvenons à considérer la chose telle qu'elle est en soi .</p> <p>Mais non seulement l'un de nos ingrédients devient superflu parce que le concept et l'objet, la norme et ce qui doit être testé, sont présents dans la conscience elle-même, mais nous sommes également soulagés de la peine de comparer les deux et de l' essai proprement dit , de sorte que , à mesure que la conscience s'examine, de ce côté aussi nous n'avons que de pure observation. Car la conscience est, d'une part, conscience de l'objet, et, d'autre part, conscience de lui-même ; Conscience de ce qui est vrai pour lui et conscience de sa connaissance de celui-ci. Puisque tous deux visent la même chose , c'est eux-mêmes leur comparaison ; Il lui importe que sa connaissance de l'objet lui corresponde ou non. Certes, l'objet apparaît seulement tel qu'il sait qu'il est ; Il semble, pour ainsi dire, ne pas pouvoir comprendre à quoi il ressemble, non pas pour la même chose , mais ce qu'il est en lui-même , et donc ne pas pouvoir tester ses connaissances contre lui. Juste dans le fait qu'elle connaît un objet, il y a déjà la différence que pour elle quelque chose est l' en-soi , mais qu'un autre moment est la connaissance ou l'être de l'objet pour la conscience. Le test repose sur cette distinction, qui existe. Si les deux ne correspondent pas dans cette comparaison, alors la conscience semble devoir changer sa connaissance pour l'adapter à l'objet, mais en changeant la connaissance, l'objet lui-même change en réalité ; car la connaissance existante était essentiellement une connaissance de l'objet ; Avec la connaissance, il devient aussi une personne différente, parce qu'il appartenait essentiellement à cette connaissance. Il prend ainsi conscience que ce qui était auparavant pour lui l' en-soi n'est pas en soi, ou qu'il n'était en soi que pour lui . Puisqu'il ne trouve pas que la connaissance de son objet lui corresponde, l'objet lui-même ne peut pas non plus durer ; ou le niveau du test change lorsque celui dont il devrait être le niveau échoue au test ; et le test n'est pas seulement un test de connaissances mais aussi de niveau.</p> <p>Ce mouvement dialectique que la conscience exerce sur elle-même, tant sur sa connaissance que sur son objet, dans la mesure où le nouvel objet véritable naît d' elle , est en réalité ce qu'on appelle l'expérience . À cet égard, il y a un moment du processus qui vient d'être évoqué qui mérite d'être souligné plus en détail, ce qui apportera un nouvel éclairage sur le côté scientifique de la présentation suivante. La conscience sait quelque chose , cet objet est l'essence ou l' en-soi ; mais c'est aussi l' en-soi de la conscience ; Cela crée l'ambiguïté de cette vérité. On voit que la conscience a désormais deux objets, le premier l' en-soi , le second l'être -pour-soi de cet en-soi . Cette dernière apparaît d'abord comme n'étant que le reflet de la conscience en elle-même, une représentation, non pas d'un objet, mais seulement de sa connaissance du premier. Mais comme nous l'avons montré précédemment, le premier objet change pour lui ; il cesse d'être l'en-soi et devient celui qui n'est l' en-soi que pour lui ; Mais alors voici ce qu'il en est : l'être-pour-il est cet en-soi , la vérité, mais cela veut dire que ceci est l' essence , ou son objet . Ce nouvel objet contient la nullité du premier ; c'est l'expérience faite à son sujet.</p> <p>Il y a un moment dans cette représentation du déroulement de l'expérience qui ne semble pas correspondre à ce que l'on entend habituellement par expérience. Le passage du premier objet et la connaissance de celui-ci à l'autre objet sur lequel on dit que l'expérience s'est faite s'est énoncé de telle manière que la connaissance du premier objet, ou la pour -la-conscience du premier in- lui-même, qui devrait devenir le deuxième objet lui-même. D'un autre côté, il semble que nous éprouvions le mensonge de notre premier concept avec un autre objet que nous trouvons par hasard et extérieurement, de sorte que seule la compréhension pure de ce qui est en et pour soi tombe en nous. Dans cette perspective, cependant, le nouvel objet se révèle être le résultat d'un renversement de la conscience elle-même. Cette considération de la matière est notre ingrédient, à travers lequel la série d'expériences de conscience s'élève au niveau d'un processus scientifique. ce n'est pas pour la conscience que nous avons du respect. Mais il s'agit en réalité de la même circonstance qui a déjà été évoquée plus haut à propos du rapport de cette représentation au scepticisme, à savoir que le résultat qui naît toujours d'une connaissance qui n'est pas vraie ne doit pas converger vers un néant vide mais doit nécessairement être compris comme tel. le néant de ce dont il est le résultat ; un résultat qui contient ce que la connaissance antérieure contient de vrai. Cela se présente ici de telle manière que, à mesure que ce qui est apparu d'abord comme objet s'enfonce à la conscience dans sa connaissance, et que l' en-soi devient un être-pour-la-conscience de l' en-soi , c'est là l'essence même de l'objet. un nouvel objet, avec lequel apparaît également une nouvelle forme de conscience, qui est essentiellement différente de la précédente. C'est cette circonstance qui guide la nécessité de toute la séquence des formes de conscience. Seule cette nécessité elle-même, ou l' émergence du nouvel objet, qui se présente à la conscience sans savoir comment cela se produit, est ce qui se passe pour nous dans son dos, pour ainsi dire. Il en résulte qu'un moment d'être en soi ou pour nous entre dans son mouvement , qui ne se présente pas à la conscience impliquée dans l'expérience elle-même ; Mais le contenu de ce qui surgit pour nous est pour lui , et nous n'en comprenons que l'aspect formel, ou sa pure émergence ; pour elle, cette chose créée n'est qu'un objet, pour nousen même temps que le mouvement et le devenir.</p> <p>En raison de cette nécessité, ce chemin vers la science lui-même est déjà la science , et selon son contenu, la science de l' expérience de la conscience .</p> <p>L'expérience que la conscience fait d'elle-même ne peut, dans son concept, comprendre rien de moins que tout son système, ou tout le domaine de la vérité de l'esprit, de sorte que ses moments se présentent dans cette détermination particulière, non abstraite, les purs sont des moments, mais tels qu'ils le sont pour la conscience, ou tels que la conscience elle-même apparaît dans sa relation avec eux, les moments du tout étant des formes de conscience . À mesure qu'il avance vers sa véritable existence, il atteindra un point où il perdra son apparence d'être affligé de quelque chose d'étrange qui n'est qu'à lui et comme quelque chose d'autre, ou où l'apparence deviendra comme l'essence, sa représentation coïncidera ainsi avec cela. point même de la science actuelle de l'esprit, et enfin, en saisissant cette essence même, il désignera la nature même de la connaissance absolue.</p> <p> I<br class='autobr' /> Certitude sensuelle ;<br class='autobr' /> ou le ceci et le sens</p> <p>La connaissance qui est première ou immédiate notre objet ne peut être autre que celle qui est elle-même connaissance immédiate, connaissance de l' immédiat ou de l'être . Nous devons nous comporter de la même manière directe ou réceptive , c'est-à-dire ne rien changer à ce qui se présente et empêcher la compréhension de l'appréhension.</p> <p>Le contenu concret de la certitude sensorielle la fait apparaître immédiatement comme la connaissance la plus riche , voire d'une richesse infinie, pour laquelle nous sommes tout aussi susceptibles d'être dehors dans l'espace et le temps dans lesquels elle se propage que si nous en faisions partie. prenez de cette plénitude et entrez -y par la division , aucune limite ne peut être trouvée. Elle paraît aussi être la plus vraie ; car elle n'a encore rien laissé de côté de l'objet, mais l'a plutôt devant elle dans toute sa complétude. Mais cette certitude se présente en réalité comme la vérité la plus abstraite et la plus pauvre . Elle ne dit cela que de ce qu'elle sait : c'est ; et sa vérité ne contient que l' être de la chose ; La conscience, elle, n'est dans cette certitude que comme un pur ego ; ou bien je n'y suis qu'aussi pur ceci , et l'objet n'est aussi qu'aussi pur ceci . Moi, celui-ci , je ne suis pas certain de cette question parce que moi, en tant que conscience, je me suis développé et j'ai déplacé mes pensées de différentes manières. Ni parce que la chose dont je suis certain a un rapport riche avec elle-même, ou un comportement multiple à modifier, selon de nombreuses propriétés différentes. Ni l'un ni l'autre ne concerne la vérité de la certitude sensible ; ni moi ni la chose n'ont le sens d'une médiation diverse ; Je n'ai pas le sens d'une conception ou d'une pensée diverse, ni la chose le sens de qualités diverses ; mais le problème est que ; et elle l' est , juste parce qu'elle l' est ; c'est , c'est l'essence de la connaissance sensorielle, et cet être pur ou cette simple immédiateté constitue sa vérité . De même, la certitude en tant que relation est une relation immédiate et pure ; La conscience est moi , rien de plus, un pur Ceci ; l' individu connaît cela purement, ou l'individu .</p> <p>Mais à bien y regarder, bien d'autres choses sont en jeu dans l' être pur qui constitue l'essence de cette certitude et qu'elle exprime comme sa vérité. Une véritable certitude sensorielle n'est pas seulement cette pure immédiateté, mais un exemple de celle-ci. Parmi les innombrables différences qui se produisent, nous trouvons partout la différence principale, à savoir que les deux déjà mentionnés ceux-ci , a ceci en tant que moi et a ceci en tant qu'objet , tombent immédiatement hors de l'être pur. Si l'on réfléchit à cette différence, il apparaît que ni l'un ni l'autre ne sont seulement immédiats , dans la certitude sensorielle, mais en même temps médiatisés ; J'ai la certitude par autre chose, à savoir la chose ; et ceci est aussi en certitude par un autre, à savoir par moi.</p> <p>Ce n'est pas seulement nous qui faisons cette différence entre essence et exemple, entre immédiateté et médiation, mais nous la trouvons dans la certitude sensorielle elle-même ; et il doit être reçu sous la forme sous laquelle il est en elle, non sous la forme que nous venons de définir. Il y a une chose qui y est posée comme l'être simple et immédiat, ou comme l'essence, l'objet ; mais l'autre, comme inessentiel et médiatisé, qui n'est pas en soi mais à travers un autre, moi, une connaissance qui ne connaît l'objet que parce qu'il existe, et qui peut être ou ne pas être. Mais l'objet est la vérité et l'essence ; c'est le cas , que cela soit connu ou non ; il reste, même s'il n'est pas connu ; Mais la connaissance n'existe pas si l'objet n'existe pas.</p> <p>Il faut donc considérer l'objet s'il est bien, au sens même de certitude, comme l'être pour lequel il se présente par lui ; si ce concept d'être correspond à la façon dont il existe en elle. En fin de compte, nous n'avons pas besoin de réfléchir sur lui et de penser à ce qu'il veut vraiment être, mais seulement de le regarder tel que le porte la certitude sensuelle.</p> <p>Vous devez donc vous demander : qu'est-ce que c'est ? Si nous le prenons sous la double forme de son être, comme le maintenant et comme l' ici , la dialectique qu'il porte en elle recevra une forme aussi compréhensible qu'elle l'est elle-même. A la question : Qu'est-ce que le maintenant ? Alors répondons, par exemple : C'est maintenant la nuit . Pour tester la véracité de cette certitude sensorielle, une simple expérience suffit. Nous écrivons cette vérité ; une vérité ne peut pas être perdue en l'écrivant ; cela ne signifie pas non plus que nous les gardons. Si nous regardons à nouveau la vérité écrite cet après-midi , nous devrons dire qu'elle est devenue obsolète.</p> <p>Le maintenant, qui est la nuit, est préservé , c'est-à-dire qu'il est traité comme ce qu'il est donné d'être, comme un être ; mais il s'avère plutôt que c'est une chose inexistante. Le Maintenant lui-même se maintient, mais comme quelque chose qui n'est pas la nuit ; de la même manière, il se maintient par rapport au jour qu'il est maintenant, comme quelque chose qui n'est pas non plus le jour ; ou comme négatif du tout. Ce moment auto-préservé n'est donc pas immédiat mais médiatisé ; car il est déterminé comme quelque chose de permanent et d'auto-entretenu en ce sens que les autres choses, à savoir le jour et la nuit, n'existent pas. Pourtant il est toujours aussi simple qu'avant, Maintenant , et dans cette simplicité il est indifférent à ce qui se joue encore avec lui ; De même que la nuit et le jour ne sont pas son être, ils sont aussi le jour et la nuit ; il n'est nullement affecté par son altérité. Une chose si simple, qui par négation n'est ni ceci ni cela, n'est pas ceci , et est également indifférente au fait d'être ceci ou cela, nous l'appelons un universel ; L'universel est donc bien la vérité de la certitude sensible.</p> <p>Nous exprimons aussi le sensible comme un universel ; ce que nous disons, c'est : Ceci , c'est-à-dire le ceci général ; ou : c'est ; c'est-à-dire être en général . Bien entendu, nous n'imaginons pas le général ceci, ni l'être en général , mais nous exprimons le général ; ou bien nous ne parlons tout simplement pas comme nous l' entendons dans cette certitude sensorielle . Mais le langage, comme nous le voyons, est ce qu'il y a de plus véridique ; Nous y réfutons nous-mêmes directement notre opinion , et puisque l'universel est la vérité de la certitude sensuelle, et que le langage ne fait qu'exprimer cette vérité, il n'est pas du tout possible que nous puissions jamais dire d'un être sensuel ce que nous voulons dire .</p> <p>Ce sera le même cas avec l'autre forme de ceci, avec le here . Par exemple, voici l' arbre . Je me retourne et cette vérité a disparu et s'est transformée en le contraire : ceci n'est pas un arbre , mais plutôt une maison . L' ici lui-même ne disparaît pas ; elle est plutôt permanente dans la disparition de la maison, de l'arbre, etc., et est indifférente au fait d'être une maison ou un arbre. Cela se manifeste à nouveau comme une simplicité médiatisée ou comme une généralité .</p> <p>Cette certitude sensuelle, en ce qu'elle prouve que l'universel en soi est la vérité de son objet, reste donc l'être pur comme son essence, mais non pas comme une essence immédiate, mais à laquelle la négation et la médiation sont essentielles ; non pas comme ce que nous entendons par être , mais être avec la détermination qu'il s'agit d'une abstraction ou d'un purement universel, et notre opinion , pour laquelle le vrai de la certitude sensible n'est pas l'universel, reste uniquement vide ou indifférente au présent et il reste encore ici.</p> <p>Si l'on compare la relation dans laquelle le savoir et l' objet sont apparus d'abord avec la relation dans laquelle ils apparaissent dans ce résultat, la situation est inversée. L'objet qui était censé être l'essentiel est maintenant l'inessentiel de la certitude sensible, parce que l'universel qu'il est devenu n'est plus tel qu'il devrait lui être essentiel, mais est maintenant à l'opposé, c'est-à-dire présent dans la connaissance qui était auparavant l'inessentiel. Sa vérité est dans l'objet comme mon objet, ou dans le mien , c'est parce que je le connais. La certitude sensuelle est ainsi chassée de l'objet, mais n'est pas pour autant abolie, mais est seulement repoussée dans le moi ; c'est voir ce que l'expérience nous montre de leur réalité.</p> <p>La puissance de sa vérité réside désormais dans le Je , dans l'immédiateté de ma vision, de mon audition , etc. ; La disparition des individus Maintenant et Ici, dont nous parlons, est empêchée par le fait que je m'accroche à eux. Aujourd'hui c'est jour parce que je le vois ; C'est un arbre , juste pour cette raison. Mais la certitude sensorielle éprouve dans ce rapport la même dialectique que dans le précédent. Moi, ceci , je vois l'arbre et je revendique l'arbre comme ici ; Mais un autre voit la maison et prétend que ce n'est pas un arbre, mais plutôt une maison. Les deux vérités ont la même authentification, à savoir l'immédiateté de la vue, et la certitude et l'assurance des deux dans leur connaissance ; mais l'un disparaît dans l'autre.</p> <p>Ce qui ne disparaît pas ici, c'est moi , en tant que général , dont la vision n'est ni une vision de l'arbre ni de cette maison, mais une simple vision, qui se traduit par la négation de cette maison et ainsi de suite, tout aussi simple et indifférente à qu'y a-t-il d'autre qui joue contre la maison, qui est l'arbre. Je n'est que des choses générales, comme maintenant , ici ou ceci en général ; Je veux dire un seul je , mais aussi peu que je puisse dire ce que j'entends par Maintenant, Ici, tout aussi peu à propos de moi. En disant : ceci ici, maintenant, ou un seul , je dis : tous ceux-là, tous ici, maintenant, seuls ; De même, quand je dis : moi, ce moi individuel, je dis en général : tout moi ; tout le monde est ce que je dis : moi, cet individu je. Si cette exigence est présentée à la science comme une pierre d'essai sur laquelle elle ne peut tout simplement pas s'appuyer pour déduire, construire, trouver a priori ce qu'on appelle cette personne, oucette chose dit de quelle chose ou de quoi je parle ; mais il est impossible de le dire.</p> <p>La certitude sensuelle expérimente donc que son essence n'est ni dans l'objet ni dans le Je, et que l'immédiateté n'est ni l'immédiateté de l'un ni de l'autre, car ce que je veux dire dans les deux est plutôt inessentiel, et l'objet et moi sont des généraux dans lesquels le maintenant, l'ici et le moi dont je parle ne reste pas ou n'est pas . De cette manière, nous arrivons à poser la totalité de la certitude sensorielle elle-même comme son essence , et non plus seulement un moment de celle-ci, comme cela s'est produit dans les deux cas où d'abord l'objet opposé au moi, puis le moi, était censé en être son essence. réalité. C'est donc seulement la certitude sensorielle elle-même tout entière qui la retient comme immédiateté et exclut ainsi d'elle-même toute l'opposition qui a eu lieu dans la précédente.</p> <p>Cette pure immédiateté implique donc l'altérité de l'ici comme arbre, qui se fond dans un ici qui n'est pas un arbre, l'altérité du maintenant comme jour, qui se fond dans un maintenant qui est nuit, ou un autre soi pour lequel autre chose est un objet, rien de plus. Sa vérité se maintient comme une relation cohérente qui ne fait aucune distinction entre le moi et l'objet en termes d'essentialité et de non-essentialité, et dans laquelle aucune différence ne peut pénétrer. Moi, celui-là, je maintiens donc cet ici comme un arbre et je ne me retourne pas pour que cet ici devienne pour moi un non-arbre ; Je ne fais pas non plus attention au fait qu'un autre je considère cet ici comme un non-arbre, ou que moi-même, une autre fois, je considère l'ici comme un non-arbre, le présent comme un non-jour, mais je suis un pur regard. ; Pour moi, je m'en tiens au fait que maintenant c'est le jour, ou que voici l'arbre ; Ne comparez pas l'ici et le maintenant, mais tenez-vous-en à une relation immédiate : le présent est le jour.</p> <p>Puisque cette certitude ne veut plus apparaître, si nous attirons notre attention sur un maintenant qui est nuit ou sur un ego pour qui c'est nuit, nous y intervenons et nous laissons montrer le maintenant revendiqué. Il faut se laisser montrer , car la vérité de cette relation immédiate est la vérité de ce je, qui se limite à un maintenant ou à un ici . Si nous devions examiner plus tard cette vérité ou nous en éloigner , elle n'aurait aucun sens, car nous abolirions l'immédiateté qui lui est essentielle. Il faut donc entrer dans le même point du temps ou de l'espace, se le montrer, c'est-à-dire se laisser transformer en ce Je qui est celui qui sait avec certitude. Voyons donc quel est le caractère immédiat qui nous est montré.</p> <p>Le maintenant est affiché ; ça maintenant . Maintenant ; il a déjà cessé d'être en étant montré ; Le maintenant , c'est -à-dire , est différent de celui montré, et nous voyons que le maintenant est précisément cela, en ce sens qu'il n'est plus. Le présent, tel qu'il nous est montré, est un passé ; et c'est sa vérité ; il n'a pas la vérité d'être. C'est donc vrai que c'est arrivé. Mais ce qui a été n'est en réalité pas un être ; ce n'est pas le cas , et être c'était faire.</p> <p>Ainsi, dans cette démonstration, nous ne voyons qu'un mouvement et son déroulement suivant : 1) Je montre le maintenant, il est affirmé comme le vrai ; Mais je le montre comme quelque chose qui a été, ou quelque chose qui a été aboli, j'abolis la première vérité, et 2) j'affirme maintenant comme la seconde vérité qu'elle était , a été abolie. 3) Mais ce qui était n'est pas ; J'abolis avoir été ou avoir été anéanti, la seconde vérité, niant ainsi la négation du maintenant, et reviens ainsi à la première affirmation : que maintenant est. Le Maintenant et la manifestation du Maintenant sont ainsi constitués de telle manière que ni le Maintenant ni la manifestation du Maintenant ne sont une chose simple et immédiate, mais plutôt un mouvement qui comporte divers moments ; Ceci est posé, mais plutôt autre chose est posé, ou ceci est aboli : et cette altérité ou abolition de la première est elle-même à nouveau abolie , et ainsi revient au premier. Mais ce premier réfléchi n'est pas exactement le même que ce qu'il était d'abord, à savoir un immédiat ; mais c'est quelque chose qui se reflète en soi , ou simple , qui reste ce qu'il est en étant différent ; un Maintenant, qui est absolument plusieurs Maintenant ; et c'est le vrai Maintenant ; le Maintenant comme un simple jour qui comporte de nombreux Maintenant, des heures ; un tel maintenant, une heure, équivaut à autant de minutes, et ce maintenant représente également plusieurs maintenant, et ainsi de suite. – Montrer est en soi le mouvement qui exprime ce qu'est réellement le présent ; à savoir un résultat, ou une multiplicité de maintenant résumés ; et montrer, c'est expérimenter ce qui est désormais universel .</p> <p>L' ici montré auquel je m'accroche est aussi ceci ici, qui en fait n'est pas cela ici, mais est un devant et un derrière, un haut et un bas, une droite et une gauche. Le dessus lui-même est aussi cette altérité multiple en haut, en bas, etc. L'ici qui devrait être montré disparaît dans d'autres ici, mais ceux-ci disparaissent aussi ; Ce qui est montré, tenu et demeure est un ceci négatif , ce qui n'est ainsi que parce que les ici sont pris comme ils le devraient, mais en cela ils s'annulent ; c'est un teint simple parmi tant d'autres ici. Ce qui est ici signifié serait le point important ; mais ce n'est pas le cas, mais plutôt, en le montrant comme étant, la démonstration se révèle non pas comme une connaissance immédiate, mais comme un mouvement depuis l'ici prévu à travers de nombreux ici vers l'ici général, qui, comme le jour, est une simple multiplicité. du Maintenant, une multiplicité si simple qui est ici.</p> <p>Il devient clair que la dialectique de la certitude sensorielle n'est rien d'autre que la simple histoire de son mouvement ou de son expérience, et que la certitude sensorielle elle-même n'est rien d'autre que cette histoire. La conscience naturelle va donc toujours vers ce résultat, ce qui est vrai à son propos, et en fait l'expérience ; mais il l'oublie encore et encore et recommence le mouvement. Il est donc étonnant que, contre cette expérience, comme expérience générale, comme affirmation philosophique et même par suite du scepticisme, on affirme que la réalité ou l'être des choses extérieures comme celles-ci , ou sensuelles, a une vérité absolue. pour la conscience ; En même temps, une telle affirmation ne sait pas ce qu'elle dit, ne sait pas qu'elle dit le contraire de ce qu'elle veut dire. La vérité du sensoriel pour la conscience devrait être l'expérience générale ; mais c'est plutôt le contraire qui est l'expérience commune ; Chaque conscience elle-même annule une vérité telle que, par exemple : ceci est un arbre , ou ceci est midi , et dit le contraire : ceci n'est pas un arbre, mais une maison ; et si en cela la première assertion qui annule est encore une assertion semblable d'un ceci sensible, elle l'annule immédiatement de la même manière ; et dans tous les sens, la certitude n'éprouvera en vérité que ce que nous avons vu, à savoir qu'il s'agit d'une expérience universelle , à l'opposé de ce que cette prétention nous assure d'être une expérience générale. – Avec cet appel à l'expérience générale, il peut être permis d'anticiper la considération de la pratique. À cet égard, on peut dire que ceux qui affirment la vérité et la certitude de la réalité des objets sensibles se réfèrent à l'école de sagesse la plus basse, à savoir aux anciens mystères d'Éleusiens de Cérès et de Bacchus, et au mystère de la consommation des objets sensibles. apprendre à manger du pain et à boire du vin ; car celui qui est initié à ces mystères en vient non seulement à douter de l'existence des choses sensibles, mais encore à en désespérer ; et en eux, il accomplit lui-même en partie leur vanité, et en partie il les voit s'accomplir. Les animaux ne sont pas non plus exclus de cette sagesse, mais s'y révèlent plutôt les plus profondément initiés, car ils ne s'arrêtent pas aux choses sensibles comme existant en eux-mêmes, mais désespèrent de cette réalité et dans la certitude totale de son néant, ils aspirent à mangez-les et consommez-les facilement ; et toute la nature célèbre ces mystères manifestes, qui lui apprennent quelle est la vérité des choses sensibles.</p> <p>Cependant, selon des remarques précédentes, ceux qui font eux-mêmes de telles affirmations disent aussi exactement le contraire de ce qu'ils veulent dire ; un phénomène qui est peut-être le plus susceptible de nous faire réfléchir sur la nature de la certitude sensible. Ils parlent de l'existence d' objets extérieurs , qui peuvent être déterminés encore plus précisément comme des choses réelles , absolument individuelles, tout à fait personnelles, individuelles , dont chacune n'a plus son égale absolue ; cette existence a une certitude et une vérité absolues. Vous voulez dire ce morceau de papier sur lequel j'écris ceci , ou plutôt je l'ai écrit ; mais ils ne disent pas ce qu'ils veulent dire. S'ils voulaient vraiment dire ce qu'ils pensent à ce morceau de papier, et s'ils voulaient le dire , alors cela est impossible parce que le sens sensoriel de ce qui est signifié est inaccessible à partir du langage qui appartient à la conscience, qui est universelle en elle-même . Par conséquent, sous la tentative réelle de le dire, cela moisirait ; Ceux qui ont commencé sa description ne pourraient pas la compléter, mais devraient la laisser à d'autres qui finiraient par admettre eux-mêmes parler d'une chose qui n'existe pas . Vous parlez donc probablement de ce morceau de papier, qui est complètement différent de celui ci-dessus ; mais ils parlent de choses réelles, d'objets extérieurs ou sensibles, d'êtres absolument individuels , etc., c'est-à-dire qu'ils n'en parlent qu'en termes généraux ; Par conséquent, ce qu'on appelle l'indicible n'est rien d'autre que le faux, le déraisonnable, simplement le sous-entendu. – Si on ne dit rien d'autre de quelque chose que de dire qu'il s'agit d'une chose réelle , d'un objet extérieur , alors cela s'exprime seulement comme le plus universel, et donc son égalité avec tout, plutôt que sa différence. Si je dis une seule chose , je le dis plutôt comme une chose tout à fait générale , car elles sont toutes une seule chose ; et de même, cette chose est tout ce qu'on veut. Plus précisément, comme ce morceau de papier , tout et chaque morceau de papier est ce morceau de papier, et je n'ai jamais dit que la chose générale. Mais je veux aider le discours, qui a le caractère divin de pervertir immédiatement l'opinion, de la transformer en autre chose, et ainsi de ne pas permettre qu'elle soit prononcée du tout , en montrant ce morceau de papier, alors j'expérimente ce qu'est réellement la vérité de la certitude sensorielle ; Je le montre comme un ici , qui est un ici d'autres ici, ou en soi une simple combinaison de plusieurs ici , c'est-à-dire un général ; je l'accepte donc tel qu'il est réellement, et au lieu de connaître quelque chose d'immédiat, je perçois .</p> <p> II<br class='autobr' /> La perception ;<br class='autobr' /> ou la chose, et la tromperie</p> <p>La certitude immédiate ne prend pas ce qui est vrai, parce que sa vérité est l'universel, mais elle veut prendre ce que c'est . La perception, au contraire, prend ce qui est son être comme un universel. De même que l'universalité est son principe en général, les moments qui en diffèrent immédiatement le sont également, I est général et l'objet est général. Ce principe est apparu pour nous , et notre réception de la perception n'est donc plus une réception apparente, comme celle de la certitude sensorielle, mais une réception nécessaire. Dans l'émergence du principe, les deux moments, qui ne ressortent que par leur apparence , sont devenus en même temps ; l'un est le mouvement de pointer, l'autre le même mouvement, mais comme une chose simple ; que la perception , que l' objet . L'objet est essentiellement le même que le mouvement : c'est le déroulement et la différenciation des instants, c'est la combinaison de ceux-ci. Pour nous ou en soi, le général comme principe est l' essence de la perception ; et contre cette abstraction, les deux distinguaient, le percevant et le perçu, l' inessentiel . Mais en fait, parce que tous deux sont eux-mêmes l'universel ou l'essence, ils sont tous deux essentiels ; Mais comme ils se rapportent les uns aux autres comme des opposés, un seul peut être l'élément essentiel de la relation ; et la différence entre l'essentiel et l'inessentiel doit être répartie entre eux. Celui qui est déterminé comme simple, l'objet, est l'essence, qu'il soit perçu ou non ; Mais la perception en tant que mouvement est une chose impermanente, qui peut être ou non, et qui n'est pas essentielle.</p> <p>Cet objet doit maintenant être déterminé plus en détail et cette détermination doit être brièvement développée à partir des résultats qui en découlent ; le développement plus détaillé n'a pas sa place ici. Puisque son principe, l'universel, est médiatisé dans sa simplicité , il doit l'exprimer en lui-même comme sa nature ; Il se révèle ainsi être une chose dotée de nombreuses propriétés . La richesse de la connaissance sensorielle appartient à la perception, non à la certitude immédiate, dont elle n'était qu'un accessoire, car seule celle-ci a dans son essence la négation , la différence ou la diversité.</p> <p>Le ceci est donc posé comme non cela , ou comme annulé ; et donc non pas rien, mais un certain rien, ou un rien de contenu , à savoir ceci . Il en résulte que le sensible lui-même est toujours présent, mais non pas, comme il devrait l'être dans une certitude immédiate, comme individu visé, mais comme un universel, ou comme ce qui se déterminera comme propriété . L' annulation représente son véritable double sens, que nous avons vu en négatif ; c'est une négation et une préservation à la fois ; Le néant, comme néant de ceci , conserve l'immédiateté, et est lui-même sensuel, mais immédiatité générale. – Mais l'être est universel en ce qu'il a en lui la médiation ou le négatif ; en exprimant cela à travers son immédiateté , c'est une propriété distincte et définie . Cela signifie que plusieurs de ces propriétés sont posées en même temps, chacune étant négative les unes des autres. Parce qu'elles s'expriment dans la simplicité du général, ces déterminations , qui ne deviennent en réalité propriétés que par une détermination ultérieure, se réfèrent à elles-mêmes , sont indifférentes les unes aux autres, chacune en soi, libre l'une de l'autre. Mais la simple et même universalité elle-même se distingue à nouveau de ces déterminants et est libre ; Il est pur relatif à lui-même, ou au milieu dans lequel ces déterminations existent toutes, et se pénètrent donc comme une simple unité , mais sans se toucher ; car c'est précisément par leur participation à cette généralité qu'ils sont indifférents à eux-mêmes. – Ce milieu général abstrait, que l' on peut appeler la chose en général ou l' être pur , n'est rien d'autre que l' ici et maintenant , comme il s'est avéré l'être, à savoir comme une simple combinaison de plusieurs, mais les plusieurs sont eux-mêmes simples en leur détermination générale . Ce sel est ici simple, et en même temps multiple ; il est blanc, et aussi pointu, aussi de forme cubique, aussi d'un certain poids, et ainsi de suite. Toutes ces nombreuses fonctionnalités sont regroupées ici, dans lequel ils se pénètrent ; aucun n'a ici un différent de l'autre, mais chacun est partout, dans le même où est l'autre ; et en même temps, sans être séparés par des ici différents, ils ne s'influencent pas dans cette interpénétration ; Le blanc n'affecte ni ne change le cubique, le dièse non plus, etc., mais comme chacun est lui-même une simple référence à lui-même , il laisse les autres calmes et ne se rapporte à eux qu'à travers l'indifférence aussi . C'est donc là aussi le pur universel lui-même, ou le médium, la chose qui le résume .</p> <p>Dans cette relation née, le caractère de l'universalité positive est seulement observé et développé ; Mais il y a un autre aspect qui doit également être pris en compte. Autrement dit, si les nombreuses propriétés déterminées étaient absolument indifférentes et ne se rapportaient qu'à elles-mêmes, alors elles ne seraient pas déterminées ; car ils ne le sont que dans la mesure où ils diffèrent les uns des autres et se rapportent aux autres comme opposés . Mais après cette opposition, ils ne peuvent être ensemble dans la simple unité de leur milieu, qui leur est tout aussi essentielle que la négation ; La distinction entre eux, dans la mesure où elle n'est pas indifférente, mais exclusive et nie autre chose, échappe à ce simple médium ; et ce n'est donc pas seulement une unité aussi indifférente, mais aussi une unité exclusive . – L'un est le moment de la négation , car il se réfère à lui-même de manière simple et exclut les autres ; et par quoi la chose en tant que chose est déterminée. Ce dont il s'agit dans la propriété, c'est la négation comme détermination , qui fait immédiatement un avec l'immédiateté de l'être, qui par cette unité avec la négation est l'universalité ; mais comme un il est car il est libéré de cette unité avec son contraire et est en et pour lui-même.</p> <p>Dans ces moments communs, la chose s'accomplit comme vérité de perception, dans la mesure où il faut ici la développer. C'est a) l'universalité passive indifférente, l' aussi de nombreuses propriétés, ou plutôt matières, b) la négation aussi bien que simple ; ou l' Un , l'exclusion des propriétés opposées, et c) les propriétés multiples elles-mêmes, la relation des deux premiers moments ; la négation telle qu'elle se rapporte à l'élément indifférent et s'y déploie comme un ensemble de différences ; le point de l'individualité au milieu de l'existence rayonnant dans la multiplicité. Puisque ces différences appartiennent au milieu indifférent, elles sont elles-mêmes générales, ne se rapportent qu'à elles-mêmes et ne s'influencent pas les unes les autres ; Mais dans la mesure où ils appartiennent à l'unité négative, ils sont en même temps exclusifs ; mais ce rapport opposé a nécessairement des propriétés qui leur sont également éloignées . L'universalité sensible, ou l' unité immédiate de l'être et du négatif, n'est une propriété que dans la mesure où l'une et l'universalité pure se développent à partir d'elle et se distinguent l'une de l'autre, et les relient entre elles ; C'est ce rapport aux moments purs essentiels qui complète la chose .</p> <p>C'est ainsi que se constitue la chose de la perception ; et la conscience est déterminée comme percevant dans la mesure où cette chose est son objet ; il lui suffit de le prendre et de se comporter comme une pure appréhension ; ce qui en découle est la vérité. S'il devait faire quelque chose même dans cette prise, il changerait la vérité par une telle addition ou soustraction. Puisque l'objet est le vrai et l'universel, égal à lui-même, mais que la conscience elle-même est changeante et inessentielle, il peut arriver qu'elle comprenne mal l'objet et se trompe. Celui qui perçoit est conscient de la possibilité de tromperie ; car dans l'universalité qui est le principe, l'altérité elle-même lui est immédiate, mais comme quelque chose de nul et non avenu. Son critère de vérité est donc l'identité de soi , et son comportement doit être compris comme étant identique à soi. Puisqu'en même temps la chose différente est pour lui, c'est un rapport des différents moments de son appréhension les uns aux autres ; Mais si une inégalité apparaît dans cette comparaison, ce n'est pas une contrevérité de l'objet, car il est le même que lui-même, mais de la perception.</p> <p>Voyons maintenant quelle expérience la conscience a dans sa perception réelle. Pour nous, elle est déjà contenue dans le développement de l'objet et le comportement de la conscience à son égard ; et ne sera que le développement des contradictions qui y sont présentes. – L'objet que je prends se présente comme purement un ; Je prends aussi conscience de sa qualité générale , mais qui par là même dépasse l'individuel. L'être premier de l'être objectif en tant qu'un n'était donc pas son être véritable ; puisqu'il est la vérité, le mensonge tombe en moi, et la compréhension n'était pas correcte. Par souci d' universalité de la propriété , je dois plutôt considérer l'être objectif comme une communauté en général. Je perçois maintenant davantage la propriété comme une certaine propriété , opposée à autre chose et l'excluant. Donc, en fait, je n'ai pas bien compris l'objectif lorsque je l'ai défini comme communauté avec d'autres ou comme continuité, et plutôt, pour le bien de la détermination de la propriété, je dois séparer la continuité et la poser comme exclusive. Dans le séparé, je trouve beaucoup de ces propriétés qui ne s'influencent pas les unes les autres, mais qui sont indifférentes les unes aux autres ; Je n'ai donc pas vraiment perçu l'objet lorsque je l'ai compris comme quelque chose d'exclusif , mais plutôt, comme la continuité en général, c'est maintenant un milieu général, commun dans lequel de nombreuses propriétés sont comme des généralités sensuelles , chacune en soi, et comme certaines. l'un exclut les autres. La chose simple et vraie que je perçois n'est pas un milieu général, mais la propriété individuelle en elle-même, qui n'est ni une propriété ni un être spécifique ; car il n'est plus maintenant ni l'un ni en relation avec les autres. Mais ce n'est qu'une propriété de l'un et n'est déterminé que par rapport aux autres. En tant que pure référence à soi, il ne reste qu'un être sensuel en général, puisqu'il n'a plus en lui le caractère de négativité ; et la conscience, pour laquelle il existe désormais un être sensible, n'est qu'une opinion , c'est-à-dire qu'elle a complètement quitté la perception et s'est repliée sur elle-même. Seul l'être sensuel et le sens lui-même passent dans la perception ; Je suis renvoyé au début et ramené dans le même cycle qui s'annule à chaque instant et dans son ensemble.</p> <p>La conscience y repasse nécessairement, mais en même temps pas de la même manière que la première fois. Il a expérimenté par la perception que le résultat et la vérité en sont sa dissolution, ou le reflet en lui-même de la vérité. Il a ainsi été déterminé pour la conscience comment sa perception est essentiellement constituée, à savoir non pas une simple appréhension pure, mais dans sa appréhension, elle se reflète simultanément en elle-même à partir de la vérité . Ce retour de la conscience en elle-même, qui interfère directement avec l'appréhension pure - parce qu'elle s'est révélée essentielle à la perception - change la vérité. En même temps, la conscience reconnaît ce côté comme sien et le prend sur elle, préservant ainsi le véritable objet pur. – Comme cela s'est produit avec la certitude sensorielle, il y a maintenant l'aspect de la perception selon lequel la conscience est repoussée en elle-même, mais au début pas dans le sens où c'était le cas pour cette dernière ; comme si la vérité de la perception y tombait, mais au contraire, elle reconnaît que le mensonge qui s'y produit tombe en elle. Mais grâce à cette connaissance, il est en même temps capable de l'abolir ; Il distingue sa conception du vrai du mensonge de sa perception, la corrige, et dans la mesure où il opère lui-même cette correction, la vérité comme la vérité de la perception relève du même . Le comportement de la conscience qu'il convient maintenant d'examiner est tel qu'elle ne se contente plus de percevoir, mais qu'elle est également consciente de son reflet en elle-même et le sépare de la simple conception elle-même.</p> <p>Ainsi, je prends d'abord conscience de la chose comme étant une et je dois m'y accrocher dans cette véritable détermination ; Si quelque chose de contradictoire se produit dans le mouvement de la perception, cela peut être reconnu comme étant mon reflet. Diverses propriétés apparaissent également dans la perception, qui semblent être des propriétés de la chose ; la chose seule est une, et de cette différence par laquelle elle cesse d'être une, nous avons conscience qu'elle tombe en nous. Donc cette chose n'est en réalité que blanche, portée à nos yeux, pointue aussi , à notre langue, aussi cubique à notre ressenti, et ainsi de suite. Nous ne prenons pas la différence complète de ces côtés de la chose, mais de nous-mêmes ; Ils s'effondrent dans nos yeux, qui sont complètement différents de la langue, et ainsi de suite. Nous sommes donc le milieu général dans lequel de tels moments sont isolés et autonomes. En considérant la détermination d'être un médium général comme notre réflexion, nous obtenons l'identité et la vérité de la chose, étant une.</p> <p>Ces différents côtés qu'absorbe la conscience sont cependant déterminés , chacun étant considéré individuellement comme étant dans le milieu général ; le blanc n'est qu'en opposition au noir, et ainsi de suite, et la chose est une précisément parce qu'elle s'oppose aux autres. Mais il n'exclut pas les autres par lui-même, dans la mesure où il est un ; car être un est la référence générale à soi-même, et parce qu'il est un, il est plutôt égal à tous ; mais par certitude . Les choses elles-mêmes sont déterminées en elles-mêmes ; ils ont des caractéristiques qui les différencient des autres. Puisque la propriété est la propriété propre de la chose , ou une certitude sur elle-même, elle possède plusieurs propriétés. Car d'abord la chose est la vérité, elle est en soi ; et ce qui est en lui est en lui comme son propre être, non pour le bien des autres ; ainsi, deuxièmement, les qualités particulières ne sont pas seulement pour d'autres choses, et pour d'autres choses, mais en lui-même ; Mais ce sont en lui des propriétés certaines seulement en ce qu'il y en a plusieurs qui diffèrent les unes des autres ; et troisièmement, étant ainsi dans la chosité, ils sont en eux-mêmes et indifférents les uns aux autres. Donc, en vérité, c'est la chose elle-même, qui est blanche, et aussi cubique, aussi pointue, et ainsi de suite, ou bien la chose est l' aussi , ou le milieu général , dans lequel les nombreuses propriétés existent indépendamment les unes des autres, sans se toucher ni se toucher. s'annulant mutuellement ; et ainsi pris, cela est considéré comme la vérité.</p> <p>Dans cette perception, la conscience est simultanément consciente qu'elle réfléchit également sur elle-même et que dans la perception se produit également le moment opposé au moment . Mais ce moment est l'unité de la chose avec elle-même, qui exclut la différence d'elle-même. C'est donc elle qui doit prendre sur elle la conscience ; car la chose elle-même est l' existence de nombreuses propriétés différentes et indépendantes . On dit donc de la chose qu'elle est blanche, aussi cubique, et aussi pointue, etc. Mais en tant qu'elle est blanche, elle n'est pas cubique, et en tant qu'elle est cubique et aussi blanche, elle n'est pas pointue, etc. La mise en un de ces propriétés n'appartient qu'à la conscience, qui ne doit donc pas les laisser s'effondrer en un seul dans la chose. Il amène l' Insuffisamment à la fin , par quoi il les sépare et la chose comme l'Aussi. En réalité, l'unité n'est assumée par la conscience que de telle manière que ce qu'on appelait une propriété se présente comme une matière libre . De cette manière, la chose est également élevée au rang de vrai , dans la mesure où elle devient un ensemble de matière et, au lieu d'être une, elle devient une simple surface enfermante.</p> <p>Revenons sur ce que la conscience a pris auparavant et ce qu'elle prend maintenant ; ce qu'il attribuait auparavant à la chose et lui l'attribue maintenant, il en résulte qu'il fait tour à tour lui-même et la chose dans les deux, un pur sans pluralité, ainsi qu'une matière également dissoute en matière indépendante . La conscience découvre donc à travers cette comparaison que non seulement sa réception de la vérité a en elle la différence de l'appréhension et du retour en soi , mais plutôt que la vérité elle-même, la chose, se montre de cette double manière. L'expérience ici est que la chose se présente à la conscience consciente d'une certaine manière , mais en même temps se reflète dans la manière dont elle se présente ou a en elle-même une vérité opposée.</p> <p>La conscience est donc aussi issue de cette deuxième manière de se comporter dans la perception, à savoir prendre la chose comme vérité égale à elle-même, mais pour l'inégal, pour ce qui remonte en soi à partir de la mêmeté, et l'objet pour elle est maintenant tout ce mouvement, qui était auparavant distribué à l'objet et à la conscience. La chose est une , réfléchie en elle-même ; c'est pour soi ; mais c'est aussi pour un autre ; à savoir, c'est quelque chose de différent pour lui-même que pour les autres. La chose est donc un être double , différent pour elle-même et aussi pour un autre ; mais c'en est un aussi ; mais l'unité contredit cette diversité ; La conscience devrait alors reprendre cette fusion en une seule et garder les choses à l'écart. Il faudrait donc dire que la chose, en tant qu'elle est pour soi, n'est pas pour autrui. Seule la chose elle-même est une, comme la conscience en a fait l'expérience ; la chose se reflète essentiellement en elle-même. Le aussi , ou la différence indifférente, relève de la chose au même titre que l' un ; mais comme les deux sont différents, non pas dans la même chose, mais dans des choses différentes ; La contradiction qui existe dans l'être objectif en général se répartit entre deux objets. La chose est donc en soi égale à elle-même ; mais cette unité avec soi est troublée par d'autres choses ; Ainsi l'unité de la chose est préservée, et en même temps l'altérité en dehors d'elle, ainsi qu'en dehors de la conscience.</p> <p>Même si la contradiction de l'être objectif se répartit entre différentes choses, la différence se situera néanmoins dans la chose individuelle séparée elle-même. Les différentes choses sont donc posées pour elles-mêmes ; et le conflit entre eux est si mutuel que chacun n'est pas différent de lui-même, mais seulement de l'autre. Mais chacun est ici défini comme quelque chose de différent et présente une différence essentielle par rapport aux autres ; mais en même temps ce n'est pas tant qu'elle soit une opposition en soi, mais plutôt c'est en soi une simple détermination qui constitue son caractère essentiel qui la distingue des autres. En effet, puisque la différence est en lui, la même est nécessaire en lui comme une différence réelle de nature multiple. Simplement parce que la détermination constitue l' essence de la chose, par laquelle elle diffère des autres et est pour elle-même, cette autre nature diverse est l' inessentiel . La chose, dans son unité, en a le double aspect , mais avec une valeur inégale ; par quoi cet être en opposition ne devient pas l'opposition réelle de la chose elle-même, mais dans la mesure où celui-ci s'oppose par sa différence absolue , il l'a contre une autre chose en dehors de lui. Mais l'autre diversité est bien nécessaire dans la chose, de sorte qu'elle ne peut rester en dehors d'elle, mais elle ne lui est pas essentielle .</p> <p>Cette déterminité, qui constitue le caractère essentiel de la chose et la distingue de toutes les autres, est maintenant déterminée de telle manière que la chose s'oppose par là même aux autres, mais est destinée à s'y maintenir. Mais c'est une chose, ou une chose qui existe pour elle-même, seulement dans la mesure où elle n'est pas dans cette relation avec les autres ; parce que dans cette relation s'établit le lien avec autre chose ; et la connexion avec les autres est la cessation de l'être pour soi. Par son caractère absolu et son opposition, il se rapporte aux autres , et seul ce comportement est essentiel ; Mais la relation est la négation de son indépendance, et la chose périt plutôt à cause de sa propriété essentielle.</p> <p>La nécessité d'éprouver pour la conscience que la chose périt précisément à cause de la détermination qui constitue son essence et son être pour soi peut être brièvement envisagée dans ce concept simple. La chose est posée comme être-pour-soi , ou comme négation absolue de toute altérité ; d'où la négation absolue, qui ne renvoie qu'à elle-même ; mais la négation qui se réfère à soi est l'abolition de soi , ou avoir son essence dans un autre.</p> <p>En fait, la définition de l'objet telle qu'elle est apparue ne contient rien d'autre ; Il doit avoir une qualité essentielle, qui constitue son simple être-pour-soi, mais avec cette simplicité il doit aussi avoir en lui la différence, qui, bien que nécessaire , ne doit pas constituer la détermination essentielle . Mais c'est une distinction qui réside uniquement dans les mots ; L' inessentiel , qui serait en même temps nécessaire , s'annule, ou est ce qu'on vient d'appeler la négation de soi.</p> <p>L'ultime à cet égard , qui séparait l'être-pour-soi et l'être-pour-autrui, s'effondre ; L'objet est plutôt, sous un seul et même rapport, le contraire de lui-même, pour lui-même en tant qu'il est pour autre chose , et pour autre chose en tant qu'il est pour soi . Il est pour lui-même , reflété en lui-même, un ; mais cet être -pour-soi , réfléchi en soi, est dans l'unité avec son contraire, l'être-pour-autrui , et donc seulement posé comme quelque chose de suspendu ; ou bien cet être pour soi est tout aussi inessentiel que ce qui seul devrait être l'inessentiel, à savoir le rapport à autre chose.</p> <p>L'objet est ainsi aboli dans ses déterminations pures ou dans les déterminations qui étaient censées constituer son essence, de même qu'il est devenu sublation dans son être sensible. D'être sensuel, il devient universel ; mais cet universel, puisqu'il vient du sensible , est essentiellement conditionné par lui , et n'est donc pas du tout vraiment le même, mais plutôt un universel affecté par un contraire , qui tombe donc dans les extrêmes de l'individualité et de l'universalité, l'unicité. des propriétés et même la matière libre se sépare. Ces déterminants purs semblent exprimer l' essence elle-même, mais ils ne sont qu'un être pour soi , qui se charge d' être pour autrui ; Mais comme les deux sont essentiellement dans une unité , l'universalité absolue inconditionnelle est maintenant présente, et la conscience n'entre véritablement dans le domaine de la compréhension qu'ici.</p> <p>L'individualité sensuelle disparaît dans le mouvement dialectique de la certitude immédiate et devient universelle, mais seulement un universel sensuel . L'opinion a disparu, et la perception prend l'objet tel qu'il est en soi , ou comme un général en général ; L'individualité surgit donc en elle, comme une véritable individualité, comme l'être en soi de l' un , ou comme se reflétant en soi. Mais elle est encore un être pour soi conditionné , à côté duquel un autre être pour soi. , l'universalité qui s'oppose à l'individu et est conditionnée par lui se produit ; mais ces deux extrêmes contradictoires ne sont pas seulement côte à côte, mais dans une unité, ou, ce qui est la même chose, le point commun des deux, l'être pour soi est chargé du contraire en général, c'est-à-dire en même temps ce n'est pas un pour-soi . Le sophisme de la perception cherche à sauver ces moments de leur contradiction et à s'y accrocher par la distinction des considérations , par le aussi et dans ce sens , et enfin à saisir la vérité par la distinction entre l' inessentiel et un être opposé . à cela. Cependant, ces moyens d'information, au lieu d'empêcher la tromperie dans la perception, s'avèrent invalides, et la vérité qui doit être obtenue à travers cette logique de perception s'avère être le contraire sous un seul et même rapport, et donc ses Êtres ont la généralité indifférenciée et indéterminée.</p> <p>Ces abstractions vides de l'individualité et de la généralité qui lui est opposée , ainsi que de l' essence qui est liée à quelque chose d'inessentiel, une chose inessentielle et en même temps nécessaire, sont les puissances dont le jeu est la perception, souvent dite commune. sens ; Celui qui se prend pour une conscience réelle et solide n'est dans la perception que le jeu de ces abstractions ; En général, il est toujours le plus pauvre là où il pense être le plus riche. Parce qu'il est bousculé par ces êtres vains, jeté dans les bras de l'un par l'autre et par ses sophismes essayant tour à tour de s'accrocher à une chose puis à l'exact opposé et de l'affirmer, il s'oppose à la vérité, il pense cette philosophie ne doit le faire qu'avec les choses de la pensée . En fait, il y est aussi pour quelque chose et le reconnaît pour les êtres purs, pour les éléments et puissances absolues ; mais en même temps il les reconnaît dans leur détermination et en est donc maître, tandis que cet entendement percevant les prend pour vérité et se transmet d'une erreur à une autre. Lui-même ne se rend pas compte que ce sont des êtres si simples qui règnent en lui, mais il pense qu'il a toujours affaire à un matériau et à un contenu tout à fait solides, tout comme la certitude sensuelle ne sait pas que l'abstraction vide de l'Être pur est leur essence ; mais en fait, ce sont ceux sur lesquels il parcourt toute la matière et tout son contenu ; ils en sont la cohésion et la domination, et seulement ce qu'est pour la conscience le sensible comme essence , ce qui détermine ses rapports avec elle, et à travers lequel s'effectue le mouvement de la perception et sa vérité. Ce parcours, une détermination constamment alternée de ce qui est vrai et l'abolition de cette détermination, constitue en réalité la vie et l'activité quotidiennes et constantes de celui qui perçoit et de la conscience qui pense évoluer dans la vérité. Elle progresse inexorablement vers le résultat de la même abolition de toutes ces entités ou déterminations essentielles, mais à chaque instant elle n'a conscience que de cette spécificité unique comme vérité, puis à nouveau du contraire. Il sent certainement leur absence ; Afin de les sauver du danger imminent, il recourt au sophisme et affirme maintenant comme vrai ce qu'il prétendait lui-même être faux. Ce que la nature de ces êtres faux veut réellement pousser cette compréhension à faire, les pensées de cette généralité et de cette particularité , de l' aussi et de l'un , de cela.L'essentialité , qui est nécessairement liée à une inessentialité , et à une inessentialité , pourtant nécessaire, - rassemblant les pensées de ces non-essences et les abolissant ainsi, il y résiste par les supports de l' insuffisant et des considérations diverses , ou à travers cela, assumer une pensée afin de garder l'autre séparée et comme la vraie. Mais la nature de ces abstractions les rassemble en elle-même ; le sens commun est la proie de ceux qui le font tourner en rond. En cela, il veut leur donner la vérité en assumant parfois le mensonge, mais parfois aussi en qualifiant la tromperie de semblant de choses peu fiables et en séparant l'essentiel de quelque chose qui leur est nécessaire et pourtant ne devrait pas être essentiel, et cela comme leur vérité S'il s'accroche à cela, il ne reçoit pas leur vérité, mais il se livre au mensonge.</p> <p> III<br class='autobr' /> Force et compréhension,<br class='autobr' /> l'apparence et le monde surnaturel</p> <p>Dans la dialectique de la certitude sensorielle, la conscience a perdu l'ouïe, la vue, etc., et, en tant que perception, elle est parvenue à des pensées qu'elle ne fait que rassembler d'une manière inconditionnellement générale. Cet inconditionné lui-même ne serait rien d'autre que l' extrême unilatéral de l'être pour soi , s'il était pris comme un être calme et simple, car ainsi le monstre l'affronterait ; mais par rapport à cela, elle serait elle-même sans importance, et la conscience ne serait pas sortie de l'illusion de la perception ; mais il a émergé comme quelque chose qui est revenu à lui-même à partir d'un être pour soi aussi conditionné. – Cet universel inconditionné, qui est désormais le véritable objet de la conscience, existe toujours comme son objet ; il n'a pas encore saisi son concept en tant que concept . Il existe une distinction essentielle entre les deux ; Dans la conscience, l'objet est revenu à lui-même de sa relation à un autre et est ainsi devenu un concept en soi ; mais la conscience n'est pas encore le concept pour elle-même, et c'est pourquoi elle ne se reconnaît pas dans cet objet réfléchi. Pour nous, cet objet est devenu tel par le mouvement de la conscience qu'il s'entremêle dans son devenir, et le reflet des deux côtés est le même, ou un seul . Mais parce que la conscience dans ce mouvement n'avait pour contenu que l'être objectif, et non la conscience en tant que telle, il faut donner au résultat une signification objective, et la conscience se retire encore de ce qui est devenu, de sorte que la même chose lui apparaît. en tant que chose objective, l'essence est.</p> <p>L'entendement a ainsi éliminé son propre mensonge et le mensonge de l'objet ; et ce que cela lui a donné, c'est le concept de vérité ; comme une vérité qui existe en soi , qui n'est pas encore un concept, ou à laquelle manque l' être pour soi de la conscience, et que l'entendement laisse exister sans en avoir conscience. Cela détermine son essence pour lui-même ; de sorte que la conscience ne participe pas à sa libre réalisation, mais seulement l'observe et la comprend purement. Encore faut-il prendre sa place en premier et être le concept qui forme ce qui est contenu dans le résultat ; C'est seulement à travers cet objet développé, qui se présente à la conscience comme une chose existante, qu'il devient une conscience compréhensive.</p> <p>Le résultat fut l'universalité inconditionnelle, initialement dans le sens négatif et abstrait, que la conscience niait ses concepts unilatéraux et les faisait abstraction, c'est-à-dire les abandonnait. Mais le résultat en lui-même a le sens positif que l'unité de l'être-pour-soi et de l'être-pour-autrui , ou le contraire absolu, est directement posée comme une même essence. Au début, cela semble concerner uniquement la forme des moments les uns par rapport aux autres ; mais l'être pour soi et l'être pour autrui sont tout autant le contenu lui-même, car l'opposition dans sa vérité ne peut avoir d'autre nature que celle qui a abouti au résultat, à savoir le contenu considéré comme vrai dans la perception en fait seulement. appartient à la forme et se dissout dans son unité. Ce contenu est à la fois général ; Il ne peut y avoir aucun autre contenu qui, de par sa nature particulière, éviterait de revenir à cette universalité inconditionnelle. Un tel contenu serait une certaine manière d'être pour soi et de se rapporter aux autres. Être seul et se rapporter aux autres en général constitue sa nature et son essence , dont la vérité est qu'elle est inconditionnellement universelle ; et le résultat est absolument général.</p> <p>Mais parce qu'il s'agit d'un objet inconditionnellement général pour la conscience, la différence de forme et de contenu en émerge, et dans la forme du contenu, les moments ont l'apparence dans laquelle ils se sont présentés pour la première fois, d'une part le milieu général de nombreux éléments existants. questions, et d'autre part, d'être une réflexion sur soi dans laquelle leur indépendance est détruite. La première est la dissolution de l'indépendance de la chose, ou passivité, qui est être pour autrui, mais celle-ci est être pour soi. On voit comment ces moments se présentent dans l'universalité inconditionnelle qui est leur essence. Tout d'abord, il est clair que parce qu'ils ne sont que cela, ils ne sont plus du tout séparés, mais sont essentiellement des côtés qui s'annulent eux-mêmes, et seule la transition entre eux est placée l'une dans l'autre.</p> <p>L'instant unique apparaît donc comme l'être qui s'est mis à l'écart, comme un médium général ou comme l'existence d'une matière indépendante. Mais l' indépendance de ces matériaux n'est autre que ce médium ; ou bien ce général est tout entier la multiplicité de généraux si différents. L'universel est en soi dans une unité indivise avec cette multiplicité, mais cela signifie que ces matières sont, l'une là où est l'autre, elles se pénètrent - mais sans se toucher, car à l'inverse les nombreuses choses différentes sont tout aussi indépendantes. Cela établit également leur porosité pure ou leur suspension. Cette sublation encore, ou la réduction de cette différence au pur être pour soi, n'est autre que le médium lui-même et c'est l' indépendance des différences. Ou bien ceux qui sont posés indépendamment passent directement dans leur unité, et leur unité passe directement dans le développement, et celui-ci repasse dans la réduction. Mais ce mouvement est ce qu'on appelle la force ; son unique moment, à savoir sa diffusion de matière indépendante dans son être, en est l' expression ; Mais elle, en tant que disparition, est la force qui a été refoulée de son expression , ou la force réelle . Mais d'abord, la force qui a été refoulée en elle-même doit s'exprimer ; et deuxièmement, dans l'expression, elle est tout autant une force existant en soi qu'une expression dans cet être en soi. –Puisque nous conservons ainsi les deux moments dans leur unité immédiate, l'entendement auquel appartient le concept de force est en réalité le concept qui porte les moments différenciés comme différenciés ; car en eux-mêmes, ils ne seront pas distingués ; La différence réside uniquement dans la pensée. – Ou bien, dans ce qui précède, seul le concept de force a été posé, et non sa réalité. En fait, la force est l'universel inconditionnel qui, quoi qu'il soit pour autrui , est aussi en soi ; ou qui a la différence - parce qu'il n'est rien d'autre qu'être -pour-un autre - en soi. Pour que la force soit dans sa vérité, il faut la laisser complètement libre de pensée et la poser comme la substance de ces différences, c'est- à-dire d'abord comme cette force entière restant essentiellement en et par elle-même , et ensuite ses différences comme substantielles . ou comme des moments qui existent en eux-mêmes. La force en tant que telle, ou comme quelque chose refoulé en elle-même, est ici une force exclusive en soi, pour laquelle le développement de la matière est un autre être existant , et ainsi se présentent deux côtés différents et indépendants. Mais la force est aussi le tout, ou elle reste ce qu'elle est selon son concept, à savoir que ces différences restent de pures formes, des instants superficiels qui disparaissent. En même temps, les différences entre la force actuelle refoulée en elle-même et le développement de la matière indépendante n'existeraient pas du tout si elles n'existaient pas , ou bien la force n'existerait pas si elle n'existait pas de cette manière opposée ; Mais le fait qu'il existe de cette manière opposée ne signifie rien d'autre que le fait que les deux moments sont eux-mêmes indépendants en même temps . – C'est ce mouvement des deux moments qui deviennent sans cesse indépendants et à nouveau leur annulation qu'il faut considérer. – Il est généralement clair que ce mouvement n'est rien d'autre que le mouvement de percevoir, dans lequel les deux côtés, le percevant et le perçu en même temps, sont un et indifférenciés comme l' appréhension de la vérité, mais en même temps chaque côté se reflète en lui-mêmeou est pour lui-même. Ici, ces deux côtés sont des moments de pouvoir ; Ils sont dans une unité d'autant que cette unité, qui apparaît comme le milieu par rapport aux extrêmes qui existent pour elle-même, se décompose toujours précisément en ces extrêmes, qui n'existent qu'à travers eux. – Le mouvement, qui se présentait auparavant comme l'auto-annihilation de concepts contradictoires, a ici la forme objective , et est un mouvement de force, par lequel l'universel inconditionnel apparaît comme non-objectif ou comme l'intérieur des choses.</p> <p>La force, telle qu'elle a été déterminée en étant présentée comme telle , ou telle qu'elle se reflète en elle-même , est une face de son concept ; mais comme un extrême justifié, à savoir celui posé sous la détermination de l'un. Cela en exclut l' existence de la matière déployée et de quelque chose d'autre qu'elle. Puisqu'il faut qu'il soit lui-même cette existence , ou qu'il s'exprime , son énoncé se présente de telle manière que cet autre le rejoint et l'associe. Mais en fait, en ce qu'il s'exprime nécessairement , il a en soi ce qui était posé comme un autre être. Il faut retenir qu'il est vu comme un , et son être d'exprimer comme autre chose ce qui lui a été ajouté du dehors. a été placé dessus ; Il est plutôt lui-même le support général de l'existence des moments en tant que matière ; ou bien elle s'est exprimée , et ce que devrait être l'autre solennité, elle l'est plutôt. Il existe donc désormais en tant que support de la matière déployée. Mais elle a également essentiellement la forme d'une sublation de la matière existante, ou en est essentiellement une ; Cette unité est maintenant , puisqu'elle est posée comme milieu de la matière, quelque chose d'autre qu'elle-même , et elle a cette essence en dehors d'elle-même. Mais comme il doit nécessairement être quelque chose qu'il n'a pas encore été posé, cela en amène d'autres et l'invite à réfléchir en lui-même, ou annule son expression. Mais en fait, c'est lui-même cet être-reflété en soi, ou cette suspension de l'expression ; l'unité disparaît telle qu'elle est apparue, c'est-à-dire comme une autre ; C'est lui-même , c'est une force refoulée en elle-même.</p> <p>Ce qui apparaît comme autre chose et l'appelle en soi à la fois pour s'exprimer et pour revenir à soi, c'est, comme on le voit immédiatement, la force elle-même ; car l'autre se montre comme un médium général aussi bien qu'un seul ; et de sorte que chacune de ces figures n'apparaît que comme un instant fuyant. La force n'est pas encore du tout sortie de son concept parce que quelque chose est pour elle et elle est pour autre chose. Mais deux forces sont présentes en même temps ; Le concept des deux est le même, mais il est passé de son unité à la dualité. Au lieu que l'opposition ne reste qu'un instant, elle semble avoir échappé à la règle de l'unité en se divisant en forces complètement indépendantes . Ce que signifie cette indépendance doit être examiné plus en détail. Tout d'abord, la deuxième force apparaît comme la force sollicitante, c'est-à-dire comme un médium général dans son contenu, contre ce qui est déterminé à être sollicité ; Mais puisque cette alternance essentielle de ces deux moments et elle-même est force, elle n'est en fait aussi qu'un médium général en ce sens qu'elle est censée le faire , et de même qu'elle n'est qu'une unité négative, ou quelque chose qui est censé rendre le force, parce qu'elle est censée le faire, devient . Cela transforme aussi cette différence qui s'est produite entre les deux, selon laquelle l'un doit être le prévu et l'autre le requis , en un même échange de certitudes l'une contre l'autre.</p> <p>Le jeu des deux forces consiste dans cette détermination opposée des deux, leur être l'une pour l'autre dans cette détermination, et la confusion absolue et immédiate des déterminations - transition par laquelle ces déterminations seules sont dans lesquelles les forces semblent apparaître indépendamment . Par exemple, ce qui est demandé est posé comme médium général, et ce qui est demandé est posé comme force refoulée ; mais l'un n'est lui-même médium général que parce que l'autre est une force refoulée ; ou plutôt, c'est la chose sollicitatrice pour cela, et en fait le médium. Le premier n'a sa détermination que par l'autre, et n'est sollicitant que dans la mesure où il est sollicité par l'autre pour être sollicitable ; et il perd tout aussi immédiatement la spécificité qui lui était donnée ; car cela passe à l'autre, ou plutôt est déjà passé au même ; la force étrangère qui solennelle apparaît comme un médium général, mais seulement parce qu'elle a été solennelle par lui ; Mais cela signifie qu'il le définit ainsi et qu'il est lui-même essentiellement un médium général ; Elle pose ce qu'on entend ainsi parce que cette autre détermination lui est essentielle , c'est-à-dire parce qu'elle est plutôt elle-même .</p> <p>Pour compléter la compréhension du concept de ce mouvement, on peut également souligner que les différences elles-mêmes se manifestent dans une double différence, d'abord comme différences de contenu , en ce sens qu'un extrême est une force réfléchie en soi, tandis que l'autre est une force réfléchie en soi. milieu de matière ; l' autre fois sous forme de différences de forme , en ce sens que l'une est ce qui est requis, l'autre est ce qui est requis, celle-ci est active, celle-ci est passive. Selon la différence de contenu, ils se différencient en général, ou pour nous ; Mais selon la différence de forme, ils sont indépendants, séparés et opposés dans leurs relations. Le fait que les extrêmes de ces deux côtés ne sont rien en eux-mêmes , mais plutôt que ces côtés, dans lesquels devrait consister leur essence différenciée, ne sont que des moments de fuite, une transition immédiate de chacun vers l'opposé, cela apparaît à la conscience dans la perception. du mouvement de la force. Mais pour nous, comme nous l'avons mentionné plus haut, les différences en elles-mêmes disparaissaient en tant que différences de contenu et de forme , et du côté de la forme, la chose active, supposée ou être pour soi, était essentiellement la même que celle-là. du côté de la forme, le contenu comme force refoulée en lui-même ; le passif, le sollicité ou l'être pour autrui est, du côté de la forme, la même chose qui se présentait du côté du contenu comme le médium général de bien des matières.</p> <p>Il s'ensuit que le concept de force devient réel à travers le dédoublement en deux forces , et comment il le devient. Ces deux forces existent comme des êtres en elles-mêmes ; mais leur existence est un tel mouvement les uns contre les autres que leur être est plutôt un être pur posé par autre chose , c'est-à-dire que leur être a plutôt le pur sens de disparition . Ce ne sont pas des extrêmes qui gardaient quelque chose de solide pour eux et ne faisaient que mettre une propriété extérieure au milieu et en contact les uns avec les autres ; mais ce qu'ils sont, ils ne sont que dans ce centre et ce contact. Il y a là immédiatement autant le refoulé en soi ou le pour soi de la force que l'expression, la sollicitation aussi bien que l'être-sollicité ; Ces moments ne sont pas ici répartis en deux extrêmes indépendants, qui n'offrent qu'un point opposé l'un à l'autre, mais leur essence est la suivante absolument, l'un seulement par l'autre, et ce que chacun est par l'autre n'est plus directement, dans que c'est ça. En fait, ils n'ont aucune substance propre qu'ils transportent et reçoivent. Le concept de force se maintient plutôt comme l'essence de sa réalité ; La force comme réelle n'est absolument que dans l' expression , qui en même temps n'est rien d'autre qu'une auto-annulation. Cette force réelle , imaginée comme libre de son expression et existant par elle-même, est la force refoulée en elle-même, mais cette détermination n'est en fait, comme il s'est avéré, elle-même qu'un moment d' expression . La vérité du pouvoir n'en reste donc que l' idée ; et sans se retenir, les moments de leur réalité, leurs substances et leur mouvement s'effondrent en une unité indifférenciée, qui n'est pas la force refoulée en elle-même, car celle-ci elle-même n'est qu'un tel moment, mais cette unité est son concept, en tant que concept. . La prise de conscience du pouvoir est en même temps la perte de la réalité ; Au contraire, elle est devenue quelque chose de complètement différent, à savoir cette universalité , que l'entendement reconnaît d'abord ou immédiatement comme son essence, et qui se révèle aussi comme son essence dans sa prétendue réalité, dans les substances réelles.</p> <p>Dans la mesure où nous considérons le premier universel comme le concept de l'entendement, dans lequel la force n'est pas encore en soi, le second est désormais son essence telle qu'elle se présente en et pour soi . Ou, inversement, si l'on considère le premier universel comme l' immédiat , qui devrait être un objet réel pour la conscience, alors ce second est déterminé comme le négatif de la force objective sensible ; c'est lui tel qu'il est dans sa véritable essence seulement comme objet de l'entendement ; La première serait la force refoulée en elle-même ou comme substance ; Mais ce second est l' intérieur des choses, en tant qu'intérieur , ce qui est le même que le concept en tant que concept.</p> <p>Cette véritable essence des choses s'est maintenant déterminée de telle manière qu'elle n'est pas directe pour la conscience, mais plutôt que la conscience a une relation indirecte avec ce qui est à l'intérieur et que, à mesure que la compréhension voit à travers ce centre du jeu des forces le véritable arrière-plan des choses . Le milieu, qui relie les deux extrêmes, l'esprit et l'intérieur, est l' être développé du pouvoir, qui est désormais une disparition pour l'esprit lui-même . C'est pourquoi cela s'appelle l'apparence ; car nous appelons apparence apparence , qui est elle-même un non-être . Mais il ne s'agit pas seulement d'une apparence, mais d'une apparence, d'un tout d'apparence. Cet ensemble ou général est ce qui constitue l' intérieur , le jeu des forces , comme son reflet en soi. En elle, pour la conscience, les êtres de perception se posent de manière objective tels qu'ils sont en eux-mêmes, c'est-à-dire comme . Des instants se transformant directement en contraire sans repos et sans être, l'un immédiatement en général, l'essentiel directement en inessentiel et vice versa. Ce jeu de forces est donc le négatif développé, mais sa vérité est le positif, à savoir l' universel , l' objet qui existe en soi . – L' être du même pour la conscience est médiatisé par le mouvement de l'apparition , dans lequel l' être de la perception et l'objectif sensuel n'ont qu'une signification négative, la conscience se reflète donc en elle-même comme dans la vérité, mais en tant que conscience cette vérité redevient objective. intérieur , et distingue ce reflet des choses de son reflet en lui-même ; tout comme pour lui le mouvement médiateur reste objectif. Cet intérieur est donc pour lui un extrême ; mais pour lui elle est vérité parce qu'en elle, comme dans l' en-soi, elle a simultanément la certitude d'elle-même ou le moment de son être-pour-soi ; mais elle n'en a pas encore conscience, car l' être pour soi que devrait avoir l'être intérieur de soi ne serait rien d'autre que le mouvement négatif, mais c'est encore le phénomène objectif de disparition pour la conscience, pas encore son être propre . pour soi-même ; L'intérieur est donc certes pour lui un concept, mais il ne connaît pas encore la nature du concept.</p> <p>Dans cette vérité intérieure , en tant qu'absolument universelle , qui a été purifiée de l' opposition du général et de l'individuel et qui est devenue pour l'entendement seulement au-dessus du monde sensible en tant que monde apparaissant, s'ouvre désormais un monde suprasensible en tant que monde vrai , et au dessus de la disparition de ce monde , du permanent Au - delà ; un en-soi, qui est l'apparence première et donc elle-même imparfaite de la raison, ou seulement l'élément pur en quoi la vérité a son essence .</p> <p>Notre sujet est maintenant l'inférence, qui a à ses extrémités l'intérieur des choses et l'entendement, et en son centre l'apparence ; Mais le mouvement de cette conclusion donne une détermination plus poussée de ce que la compréhension voit à travers le milieu intérieur et de l'expérience qu'elle a de cette relation d'être connecté.</p> <p>Le monde intérieur est encore un pur au-delà pour la conscience, parce qu'elle ne s'y trouve pas encore ; il est vide , car il n'est que le néant de l'apparence et positivement le simple universel. Cette manière d'être au-dedans s'accorde immédiatement avec ceux qui disent que l'intérieur des choses ne peut être connu ; mais il faudrait comprendre la raison différemment. Il n'y a bien sûr aucune connaissance de cet intérieur, tel qu'il est directement ici, mais non pas parce que la raison est trop myope, ou limitée, ou peu importe comment vous voulez l'appeler ; On ne sait rien ici encore, car nous n'avons pas encore approfondi ce sujet ; mais pour la simple nature de la chose elle-même, à savoir parce que rien n'est reconnu dans le vide , ni exprimé de l'autre côté, parce qu'il est déterminé comme au-delà de la conscience. - Le résultat est bien entendu le même lorsqu'un aveugle entre dans la richesse du monde suprasensible - s'il en possède une, il est désormais son propre contenu, ou la conscience elle-même est ce contenu - et lorsqu'un voyant entre dans les pures ténèbres, ou si tu veux, se place dans la pure lumière, si ce n'est que cela ; L'homme voyant voit aussi peu dans sa pure lumière que dans ses pures ténèbres, et tout autant que l'aveugle voit dans la plénitude des richesses qui se trouvent devant lui. S'il n'y avait rien de plus à l'intérieur et s'il n'y était connecté que par l'apparence, alors il n'y aurait plus qu'à s'en tenir à l'apparence, c'est-à-dire à prendre pour vrai quelque chose dont nous savons qu'il n'est pas vrai ; ou avec ce qui est dans le vide, qui n'est devenu que le vide des choses objectives, mais qui, comme vide en soi , doit aussi être pris comme conscience du vide de toutes les relations spirituelles et des différences de conscience - de sorte que dans ce vide si complètement , qu'on appelle aussi le sacré , mais qui est quelque chose qui le remplit de rêves, d'apparences que la conscience se crée ; Il devrait supporter d'être si mal traité, car il ne mériterait aucune amélioration, car la rêverie elle-même vaut encore mieux que son vide.</p> <p>Mais le monde intérieur ou l'au-delà suprasensible est né ; il vient de l'apparence, et il en est la médiation ; ou bien l'apparence est son essence , et même son accomplissement. Le suprasensible est le sensible et le perçu posé tel qu'il est réellement ; Mais la vérité de ce qui est sensible et perçu doit être une apparence . Le suprasensible est donc l' apparence comme apparence . – Si l'on pense que le suprasensible est le monde sensible, ou le monde tel qu'il est pour la certitude et la perception sensorielle immédiate , alors c'est une compréhension erronée ; car l'apparence n'est pas le monde de la connaissance et de la perception sensuelles comme existant, mais plutôt comme suspendu ou en vérité posé comme interne . On dit habituellement que le suprasensible n'est pas l'apparence ; Cependant, le terme apparence ne désigne pas l'apparence, mais plutôt le monde sensible , en tant que réalité réelle.</p> <p>L'entendement, qui est notre objet, se trouve exactement dans cette position où le monde intérieur ne lui est devenu connu que comme le général, non encore réalisé en soi ; Le jeu des forces n'a que cette signification négative, non pas en soi et seulement cette signification positive, la chose médiatrice , mais étant en dehors de lui. Mais sa relation à l'être intérieur par médiation est son mouvement par lequel elle s'accomplira pour lui. – L'immédiat pour lui est le jeu des forces ; mais pour lui la vérité est le simple intérieur ; Le mouvement de la force n'est donc vrai que comme chose simple . Mais nous avons vu par ce jeu de forces qu'elle a cette nature, que la force qui est associée à une autre force est aussi soucieuse de cette autre force, qui elle-même ne devient sociable que par elle. Ici aussi, il n'y a que le changement immédiat ou l'échange absolu de la détermination , qui constitue le seul contenu de ce qui se passe ; être soit un médium général, soit une entité négative. Dans son apparence déterminée, il cesse immédiatement d'être ce qu'il apparaît ; Par son apparence spécifique, il évoque l'autre côté qui s'exprime à travers celui-ci ; c'est-à-dire que c'est immédiatement ce que devrait être le premier. Ces deux faces, le rapport de l'obligation et le rapport du contenu spécifique opposé, sont chacun une perversion et une confusion absolues. Mais ces deux rapports sont eux-mêmes une seule et même chose, et la différence de forme , étant ce qui est demandé et ce qui est voulu, est la même que la différence de contenu , ce qui est voulu comme tel, à savoir le médium passif ; le sociable, en revanche, est l'unité active, négative ou l'un. De ce fait, toute différence entre les forces spéciales qui devraient être présentes dans ce mouvement disparaît les unes des autres ; car ils reposaient sur ces seules différences ; et la différence des puissances coïncide aussi avec ces deux-là seulement en une. Ce n'est donc ni le pouvoir, ni la sollicitation et l'être sollicité, ni la détermination d'être un médium existant et une unité réfléchie, ni individuellement quelque chose en soi, ni des contraires différents ; mais ce qui est dans ce changement absolu, c'est seulement la différence en tant que différence générale ou en tant que différence dans laquelle les nombreux opposés ont été réduits. Cette différence en généralVoilà donc ce qu'il y a de simple dans le jeu de force lui-même , et ce qu'il y a de vrai ; il est la loi de la force .</p> <p>L'apparence absolument changeante devient la simple différence par son rapport à la simplicité de l'intérieur ou de l'entendement. L'intérieur n'est d'abord que ce qui est universel en soi ; Mais ce général, simple en soi , est essentiellement aussi absolu que la différence générale ; car c'est le résultat du changement lui-même, ou le changement est son essence ; mais le changement, tel qu'il est posé intérieurement et réellement, y est incorporé comme une différence également absolument générale, apaisée et constante. Or la négation est un moment essentiel de l'universel, et elle ou la médiation dans le général est une différence générale . Elle s'exprime dans la loi , comme l' image constante du phénomène instable. Le monde suprasensible est ici un royaume tranquille de lois , bien qu'au-delà du monde perçu, car celui-ci ne représente la loi qu'à travers un changement constant, mais tout aussi présent en elle et dans son image directe et silencieuse.</p> <p>Ce domaine des lois est bien la vérité de l'entendement, qui a son contenu dans les différences qui sont dans la loi ; Mais en même temps, elle n'en est que la première vérité et ne complète pas l'apparence. La loi est présente en elle, mais elle n'est pas toute sa présence ; sa réalité est en constante évolution dans des circonstances en constante évolution. Cela laisse à l'apparence elle-même un côté qui n'est pas interne ; ou bien il n'est pas encore posé comme une apparence , comme un être pour soi suspendu . Ce défaut de la loi doit aussi être évident en lui-même. Ce qui semble manquer, c'est qu'elle ait bien la différence elle-même, mais de manière générale et indéterminée. Mais dans la mesure où elle n'est pas la loi en général, mais une loi, elle contient en elle une certitude ; et il y a donc un nombre indéfini de lois. Mais cette multiplicité est elle-même un défaut ; à savoir, cela contredit le principe de l'entendement selon lequel, en tant que conscience de l'intérieur simple, l' unité intrinsèquement générale est la vérité. Il doit plutôt laisser les nombreuses lois se fondre en une seule . Comment, par exemple, la loi selon laquelle la pierre tombe et la loi selon laquelle les sphères célestes se déplacent ont été comprises comme une seule loi. Mais avec cet effondrement, les lois perdent leur certitude ; la loi devient de plus en plus superficielle, et en fait ce n'est pas l'unité de ces lois spécifiques qui a été trouvée, mais plutôt une loi qui omet leur détermination ; comment la loi unique , qui unit les lois de la chute des corps sur terre et du mouvement céleste, ne les exprime pas en fait toutes deux. L'unification de toutes les lois dans l' attraction générale n'exprime aucun contenu autre que le simple concept de la loi elle-même , qui y est posée comme étant . L'attraction générale dit seulement ceci, que tout a une différence constante par rapport aux autres choses . L'entendement pense avoir trouvé une loi générale qui exprime la réalité générale comme telle ; mais en fait il n'a trouvé que le concept même de la loi ; mais de telle manière qu'en même temps il dit que toute réalité est intrinsèquement licite. L'expression de l'attraction générale revêt donc une grande importance dans la mesure où elle contraste avec l'attraction irréfléchie.L'imagination , à laquelle tout se présente sous forme de hasard, et pour laquelle la détermination a la forme d'indépendance sensuelle.</p> <p>L'attrait général, ou le concept pur de la loi, s'oppose donc aux lois spécifiques. Dans la mesure où ce concept pur est considéré comme l'essence ou comme le véritable intérieur, la détermination de la loi spécifique elle-même appartient encore à l'apparence ou plutôt à l'être sensuel. Mais le concept pur du droit dépasse non seulement le droit, qui, même spécifique , s'oppose aux autres droits spécifiques, mais il dépasse aussi le droit en tant que tel. La détermination dont nous parlions n'est en réalité qu'un instant de fuite qui ne peut plus apparaître ici comme une entité ; car seule la loi existe comme vérité ; mais le concept de droit est retourné contre le droit lui-même. Dans le droit, la différence elle-même est directement saisie et incorporée à l'universel, et avec elle l' existence des moments dont elle exprime la relation comme des entités indifférentes qui existent en elles-mêmes. Mais ces parties de la différence dans le droit sont en même temps elles-mêmes des aspects précis ; Le concept pur de la loi comme attraction générale doit être compris dans son vrai sens de telle sorte qu'en lui, en tant que chose absolument simple , les différences qui existent dans la loi comme telle retournent à l'intérieur comme une simple unité ; c'est la nécessité intérieure de la loi.</p> <p>La loi se présente donc de manière double, d'une part comme une loi dans laquelle les différences s'expriment comme des moments indépendants ; l'autre fois sous la forme d' un simple retour en soi, que l'on peut encore appeler force , mais de telle sorte qu'il ne s'agit pas de la force refoulée, mais de la force en général ou comme concept de force, abstraction qui montre les différences entre lui, ce qui attire et ce qui est attiré, s'attirent en lui-même. Par exemple, l'électricité simple est une force ; Mais l'expression de la différence relève de la loi ; cette différence est l'électricité positive et négative. Dans le mouvement de chute, la force est la chose simple, la gravité , qui a pour loi que les grandeurs des différents moments du mouvement, le temps qui s'est écoulé et l' espace qui s'est écoulé , se rapportent les uns aux autres comme racines et carrés. L'électricité elle-même n'est pas la différence en elle-même ni, dans son essence, la double nature de l'électricité positive et négative ; C'est pourquoi les gens ont tendance à dire qu'il a la loi d'être ainsi , mais aussi qu'il a la propriété de s'exprimer de cette manière. Cette propriété est la propriété essentielle et unique de ce pouvoir, ou elle lui est nécessaire . Mais nécessité est ici un mot vide de sens ; la force doit doubler parce qu'elle le doit . Bien entendu, si l'on pose l'électricité positive , l'électricité négative est également nécessaire en soi ; car le positif n'existe qu'en relation avec un négatif , ou le positif lui-même est la différence d'avec lui-même, tout comme le négatif. Mais le fait que l'électricité en tant que telle se divise de cette manière n'est pas en soi nécessaire ; en tant que simple force, elle est indifférente à sa loi d' être, tant positive que négative ; et si nous appelons cela leur concept et cela leur être, alors leur concept est indifférent à leur être ; elle n'a que cette qualité ; c'est-à-dire que cela n'est pas nécessaire en soi . – Cette indifférence prend une forme différente lorsqu'on dit que cela fait partie de la définition de l'électricité d'être positive et négative, ou que c'est simplement son concept et son essence . Alors leur être signifierait leur existencedu tout ; Mais la nécessité de leur existence ne réside pas dans cette définition ; c'est soit parce qu'on le trouve , c'est-à-dire qu'il n'est pas du tout nécessaire ; ou bien leur existence est due à d'autres forces, c'est-à-dire que leur nécessité est extérieure. Mais en plaçant la nécessité dans la détermination de l'être par autre chose , on retombe dans la multiplicité des lois déterminées que l'on vient de quitter pour considérer la loi comme une loi ; C'est seulement à cela que l'on peut comparer son concept en tant que concept ou sa nécessité, qui, sous toutes ces formes, ne s'est révélée que comme un mot vide de sens.</p> <p>L'indifférence de la loi et de la force, ou du concept et de l'être, est présente d'une autre manière que celle indiquée. Dans la loi du mouvement, par exemple, il faut que le mouvement soit divisé en temps et en espace , ou alors aussi en distance et vitesse. Puisque le mouvement n'est que le rapport de ces moments, lui, l'universel, est ici divisé en lui-même ; mais maintenant ces parties, temps et espace, ou distance et vitesse, n'expriment pas en elles cette origine d' une seule ; ils sont indifférents les uns aux autres, l'espace est imaginé sans temps, le temps sans espace et la distance au moins sans vitesse - de même que leurs quantités sont indifférentes les unes aux autres ; en ce sens qu'ils ne se comportent pas comme des choses positives et négatives , et ne sont donc pas liés les uns aux autres à travers leur essence . La nécessité de la division est certainement présente ici ; mais pas les parties en tant que telles les unes pour les autres. C'est pourquoi la première elle-même n'est qu'une fausse et fausse nécessité ; Le mouvement lui-même n'est pas imaginé comme un être simple ou pur ; mais déjà aussi divisé ; Le temps et l'espace sont leurs parties indépendantes ou des êtres en eux-mêmes , ou la distance et la vitesse sont des modes d'être ou d'imaginer, dont l'un peut bien exister sans l'autre, et le mouvement n'est donc que leur relation superficielle , non leur essence. Imaginée comme un être simple ou comme une force, il s'agit probablement de la gravité , qui ne contient cependant pas du tout ces différences.</p> <p>La différence dans les deux cas n'est pas une différence en soi ; Ou bien l'universel, la force, est indifférent à la division qui est dans la loi, ou bien les différences, parties de la loi, sont indifférentes les unes aux autres. Mais l'entendement a le concept de cette différence en lui-même , précisément dans le fait que la loi est, d'une part, l'interne, quelque chose qui existe en soi , mais en même temps est quelque chose de différent en lui ; Le fait que cette différence soit une différence intérieure est dû au fait que la loi est une simple force, ou en tant que concept de celle-ci, c'est-à-dire une différence du concept . Mais cette différence intérieure ne vient qu'à l'esprit ; et n'a pas encore réglé la question elle-même . C'est donc seulement sa propre nécessité que l'entendement exprime ; une différence qu'il fait seulement de telle manière qu'il exprime en même temps que la différence n'est pas une différence de la chose elle-même . Cette nécessité, qui ne réside que dans la parole, est la narration des instants qui composent son cercle ; Ils sont certes différenciés, mais en même temps leur différence s'exprime, non pas une différence dans la chose elle-même, et est donc elle-même immédiatement annulée ; ce mouvement s'appelle expliquer . Ainsi est prononcée une loi , d'où se distingue ce qui est intrinsèquement universel, ou la raison, comme la force ; Mais de cette différence, on dit qu'il n'y a pas de différence, mais que la raison est exactement la même que celle de la loi. L'apparition individuelle de la foudre, par exemple, est comprise comme un général, et ce général s'exprime comme la loi de l'électricité : l'explication résume alors la loi dans la force , comme l'essence de la loi. Cette force est alors telle que lorsqu'elle s'exprime, des électricités opposées surgissent, qui disparaissent ensuite l'une dans l'autre, c'est-à-dire que la force est exactement la même que la loi ; on dit que les deux ne sont pas du tout différenciés. Les différences sont la pure expression générale ou loi, et la pure force ; mais tous deux ont le même contenu, la même nature ; La différence en tant que différence de contenu, c'est-à-dire de chose, est également reprise.</p> <p>Dans ce mouvement tautologique, il s'avère que l'entendement persiste dans l'unité calme de son objet, et que le mouvement ne tombe qu'en lui-même, non dans l'objet ; C'est une explication qui non seulement n'explique rien, mais qui est si claire que, tout en essayant de dire quelque chose de différent de ce qui a déjà été dit, elle ne dit en réalité rien, mais ne fait que répéter la même chose. Ce mouvement ne crée rien de nouveau sur la chose elle-même, mais il entre plutôt en considération comme un mouvement de l'entendement. Mais nous y reconnaissons maintenant ce qui manquait à la loi, à savoir le changement absolu lui-même, car ce mouvement , si nous y regardons de plus près, est directement opposé à lui-même. Il fait une différence qui n'est pas seulement pour nous . une différence , mais qu'elle annule elle-même comme différence. C'est le même changement qui s'est présenté comme un jeu de forces ; Il y avait chez lui la différence entre le solennel et le solennel, entre la force qui s'exprime et la force qui est refoulée en elle-même ; Mais il s'agissait de différences qui n'existaient pas réellement et qui ont donc immédiatement disparu. Ce n'est pas seulement la simple unité qui est présente, de sorte qu'aucune différence ne s'établirait, mais c'est ce mouvement dans lequel une différence est effectivement faite mais , parce qu'elle n'est pas une différence, est à nouveau abolie . – Avec l'explication, le changement et le changement, qui auparavant n'étaient visibles qu'à l'extérieur de l'intérieur, ont pénétré dans le suprasensible lui-même ; Mais notre conscience est passée de l'intérieur en tant qu'objet à l'autre côté, dans la compréhension , et elle porte le changement en elle.</p> <p>Ce changement n'est pas encore un changement de la chose elle-même, mais se présente plutôt comme un pur changement car le contenu des moments de changement reste le même. Mais comme le concept, en tant que concept de l'entendement, est le même que l' intérieur des choses, ce changement devient pour lui une loi de l'intérieur . Il apprend donc que c'est la loi de l'apparence elle-même qui fait apparaître des différences qui ne sont pas des différences ; ou que la chose du même nom se repousse d'elle-même ; et aussi que les différences ne sont que celles qui ne sont pas réellement et qu'elles s'annulent ; ou que les noms opposés s'attirent . – Une deuxième loi , dont le contenu s'oppose à ce qu'on appelait auparavant loi, à savoir les différences constantes, constantes ; car cette nouvelle expression exprime plutôt le devenir inégal du même et le devenir égal de l'inégal . Le terme requiert de l'irréflexion pour rapprocher les deux lois et prendre conscience de leur opposition. – La seconde est bien sûr aussi une loi, ou un soi-même intérieur, mais plutôt un même-même d'inégalité, une constance d'impermanence. – Cette loi est née du jeu des forces comme cette transcendance absolue, et comme un pur changement ; l' éponyme , la force, se décompose en une opposition qui apparaît d'abord comme une différence indépendante, mais qui s'avère en fait n'en être pas une ; car c'est la même chose qui se repousse de soi, et cette substance repoussée s'attire donc essentiellement, parce que c'est la même chose ; La différence faite, puisqu'il n'en est pas un, s'annule à nouveau. Elle se présente ici comme une différence dans la chose elle-même , ou comme une différence absolue, et cette différence dans la chose n'est donc rien d'autre que la chose du même nom qui s'est repoussée d'elle-même et n'oppose donc qu'une opposition qui est pas un.</p> <p>Par ce principe, le premier suprasensible, le royaume calme des lois, l'image immédiate du monde perçu, se renverse en son contraire ; La loi était généralement ce qui restait le même , comme ses différences ; Mais il est désormais clair que les deux sont en réalité à l'opposé d'eux-mêmes ; Au contraire, ce qui est semblable à soi se repousse de lui-même, et ce qui est différent de soi se pose plutôt comme semblable à soi. En fait, c'est seulement avec cette détermination que la différence est interne , ou différence en soi , en ce sens que le même est inégal et que l'inégal est égal. – Ce deuxième monde suprasensible est en ce sens le monde à l'envers ; c'est-à-dire qu'il y a déjà un côté du premier monde suprasensible qui est inversé par rapport à ce premier . L'intérieur est ainsi complété en apparence. Car le premier monde suprasensible n'était que l' élévation immédiate du monde perçu dans l'élément général ; Elle avait en cela sa contrepartie nécessaire, qui gardait encore pour elle le principe du changement et du changement ; Le premier royaume de lois en manquait, mais il le maintient comme un monde inversé.</p> <p>Selon la loi de ce monde inversé, ce qui est comme le premier est différent de lui-même, et ce qui lui est différent est également différent de lui-même , ou devient semblable à lui-même . À certains moments, cela arrivera de telle manière que ce qui était doux dans la loi de la première est aigre dans ce mal en soi ; ce qui est noir dans celui-là, blanc dans celui-là. Ce qui, dans la première loi de l'aimant, est le pôle nord, est dans son autre en-soi suprasensible (c'est-à-dire dans la terre) le pôle sud ; Mais qu'est-ce que le pôle Sud, c'est le pôle Nord ici. De même que ce qui est un pôle oxygène dans la première loi de l'électricité devient un pôle hydrogène dans son autre nature suprasensible ; et vice versa, ce qui est là le pôle hydrogène devient ici le pôle oxygène. Dans un autre domaine, selon le droit immédiat, la vengeance contre l'ennemi est la plus haute satisfaction de l'individualité lésée. Mais cette loi , de me montrer comme un être contre lui à celui qui ne me traite pas comme un être-soi, et plutôt de l'abolir en tant qu'être, est renversée par le principe de l'autre monde en l'opposé , la restauration. de moi en tant qu'être à travers l'abolition de l'être étranger dans l'autodestruction. Or, si cette perversion, qui est représentée dans la punition du crime, est érigée en loi , alors elle aussi n'est que la loi d'un monde, qui a en face d'elle un monde perverti et suprasensible , dans lequel ce qui est méprisé dans l'autre, en honorer ce qui est honoré dans le premier vient au mépris. Le châtiment qui souille et détruit l'homme selon la loi du premier se transforme dans son monde à l'envers en le pardon qui préserve son essence et lui rend l'honneur.</p> <p>Vu superficiellement, ce monde inversé est tellement à l'opposé du premier qu'il le tient hors de lui, et rejette le premier comme une réalité inversée, l' une étant l' apparence , l' autre l' en-soi , l' une étant ce qu'elle est. pour un autre , l' autre par opposition à ce qu'il est pour soi ; de sorte que, pour reprendre les exemples précédents, ce qui a un goût sucré serait effectivement , ou intérieurement , aigre dans la chose, ou ce qui est dans l'aimant réel de l'apparence, le pôle nord, serait, dans l' être interne ou essentiel, le pôle sud. ; Ce qui apparaît sur l'électricité apparaissant comme un pôle d'oxygène serait sur le pôle d'hydrogène qui n'apparaît pas. Ou encore, un acte qui est un crime en apparence devrait en réalité être bon à l'intérieur (un mauvais acte peut avoir une bonne intention) ; La punition n'est qu'une punition en apparence , mais en elle-même ou dans un autre monde, elle peut être un bénéfice pour le criminel. Mais de tels contrastes entre intérieur et extérieur, entre apparence et suprasensible, comme entre deux réalités différentes, ne sont plus présents ici. Les différences repoussées ne se redistribuent pas à deux de ces substances qui les porteraient et leur donneraient une existence séparée ; par quoi la compréhension intérieure reviendrait à sa position antérieure. Un côté ou substance serait encore le monde de la perception, dans lequel l'une des deux lois opère son essence, et en face serait un monde intérieur, exactement un monde sensoriel comme le premier, mais dans l' imagination ; Il ne pouvait pas être montré comme un monde sensuel, ni vu, entendu, goûté, et pourtant il serait imaginé comme un tel monde sensuel. Mais en fait, si l'un posé est quelque chose de perçu, et que son en-soi , comme son inversion, est aussi quelque chose d'imaginé sensuellement , alors l'aigre, qui serait l'en-soi de la chose douce , est une chose aussi réelle que ça, une chose aigre ; le noir, qui serait l'en-soi du blanc, est le vrai noir ; le pôle nord, qui est l'en-soi du pôle sud, est le pôle nord présent sur le même aimant ; le pôle oxygène, qui est l'en-soi du pôle hydrogène, le pôle oxygène existant de la même colonne. Mais le vrai crime a sa perversion , etil est en soi comme possibilité dans l'intention comme telle, mais non dans une bonne ; car la vérité de l'intention n'est que l'acte lui-même. Mais le crime, selon son contenu, a son reflet en lui-même ou son inversion dans la peine réelle ; c'est la réconciliation du droit avec la réalité qui l'oppose dans le crime. Enfin, la punition réelle a sa fausse réalité en ce sens qu'elle est une telle réalisation de la loi, par laquelle l'activité qu'elle a comme punition s'annule , et ce qui est actif redevient une loi calme et valable, et le mouvement de l'individualité contre elle, et la sienne contre elle s'éteint.</p> <p>De l'idée d'inversion, qui constitue l'essence d'un côté du monde suprasensible, doit être supprimée l'idée sensuelle de la fixation des différences dans un élément différent de l'existence, et ce concept absolu de différence, comme un différence, repousse ce qui porte le même nom pour représenter et comprendre l'égalité de l'inégal comme de l'inégal. C'est le pur changement, ou l'opposition en soi, la contradiction de la pensée . Car dans la différence, qui est interne, le contraire n'est pas seulement l'un de deux – sinon il serait un être et non un contraire ; mais il est le contraire d'un contraire, ou l'autre est directement présent en soi. J'ai probablement mis le contraire ici et l'autre là , dont c'est le contraire ; c'est-à-dire le contraire d'un côté, en soi sans l'autre. Mais c'est précisément parce que j'ai ici le contraire en soi , qu'il est le contraire de lui-même, ou qu'il a en fait l'autre directement en soi - Ainsi, le monde suprasensible, qui n'est pas le bon, a en même temps empiété sur l'autre. sur eux, et eux sur eux-mêmes ; c'est le mauvais pour soi, c'est-à-dire le mauvais pour soi ; c'est lui-même et ses opposés dans une seule unité. C'est seulement ainsi qu'elle est la différence en tant que différence intérieure , ou différence en soi , ou est comme l'infini .</p> <p>A travers l'infini, nous voyons la loi de la nécessité achevée en elle-même et tous les moments d'apparition absorbés dans l'intérieur. La simplicité de la loi est l'infini, qu'on appelle, selon ce qui en résulte, α) c'est quelque chose qui est le même que soi , mais qui est la différence en soi ; ou bien c'est quelque chose du même nom qui se rejette ou se divise. Ce qu'on appelait la force simple se dédouble et est la loi par son infinité. β) Le divisé, qui constitue les parties présentées dans la loi , se présente comme existant ; et vus sans le concept de différence interne, l'espace et le temps, ou la distance et la vitesse, qui apparaissent comme des moments de gravité, sont à la fois indifférents et inutiles les uns aux autres et à la gravité elle-même, tout comme cette simple gravité lui est comparée, ou simple l'électricité s'oppose au positif et au négatif. γ ;) Mais à travers le concept de différence interne, cet espace et ce temps inégaux et indifférents, etc. est une différence , qui n'est pas une différence , ou seulement une différence du même nom , et son essence est l'unité ; ils s'inspirent l'un contre l'autre comme positifs et négatifs, et leur être est plutôt ceci, de se poser comme non-être et de l'abolir dans l'unité. Tous deux existent comme distincts, ils sont en eux-mêmes , ils sont en eux-mêmes comme opposés , c'est-à-dire à l'opposé d'eux-mêmes, ils ont leur autre en eux et ne sont qu'une unité .</p> <p>Cet infini simple ou concept absolu doit être appelé la simple essence de la vie, l'âme du monde, le sang commun, qui est omniprésent, ni obscurci ni interrompu par aucune différence, mais qui est plutôt lui-même toutes les différences, ainsi que leur subordination, c'est-à-dire qu'elle palpite en elle-même sans bouger, tremble en elle-même sans s'inquiéter. Il est identique à lui-même , car les différences sont tautologiques, ce sont des différences qui ne le sont pas. Ce même être ne se rapporte donc qu'à lui-même ; à soi-même , alors c'est autre chose vers lequel la relation est dirigée, et se rapporter à soi-même est plutôt la division , ou précisément que l'identité de soi est la différence intérieure. Ces divisions sont donc en elles-mêmes , chacune le contraire d'un autre , donc l' autre s'y exprime déjà en même temps ; ou bien il n'est pas le contraire d'un autre mais seulement le pur contraire , alors en soi il est le contraire de soi ; ou bien ce n'est pas du tout un contraire, mais pur en soi, un être pur et identique qui n'a aucune différence en soi, alors nous n'avons pas besoin de poser la question, et encore moins de considérer le tourment d'une telle question pour la philosophie, ou même pour qu'il en fasse partie, considérez-le sans réponse - comment la différence ou l'altérité vient de cet être pur, comment en sort ; car la division a déjà eu lieu, la différence a été exclue du même et placée à côté de lui ; Ce qui devrait être le même que soi est donc déjà un des divisés, bien plus que l'essence absolue. Ce qui est égal à soi se divise , c'est pourquoi cela signifie également qu'il se dissout comme quelque chose de déjà divisé, il se dissout comme altérité. L' unité , dont on dit habituellement que la différence ne peut en sortir, n'est en fait elle-même que l' unique moment de la division ; c'est l'abstraction de la simplicité, qui s'oppose à la différence. Mais comme c'est l'abstraction, seulement l'un des contraires, on a déjà dit que c'est la division ; car si l'unité est un négatif , un opposé , alors elle est posée comme ce qui contient l'opposition. Les différences entre se diviser et devenir le même que soi ne sont donc que ce mouvement d'auto-abolition. ; car puisque la même chose, qui doit d'abord se diviser en deux ou devenir son contraire, est une abstraction ou déjà quelque chose de divisé, sa division est par là une abolition de ce qu'elle est et donc l'abolition de sa division. Devenir identique à soi-même est aussi une division ; Ce qui devient égal à lui-même se trouve ainsi confronté à la division ; Autrement dit, il se met de côté , ou plutôt il se divise .</p> <p>L'infinité ou cette inquiétude absolue du pur mouvement de soi, selon laquelle ce qui est déterminé d'une manière ou d'une autre, par exemple comme étant, est plutôt le contraire de cette détermination, a déjà été l'âme de tout ce qui a précédé, mais n'existe qu'en il apparaît d'abord librement comme une explication ; et parce qu'elle est finalement un objet pour la conscience telle qu'elle est , alors la conscience est la conscience de soi . Expliquer l' esprit ne décrit initialement que ce qu'est la conscience de soi. Il abolit les différences qui existent dans la loi, déjà devenues pures mais encore indifférentes, et les établit dans une unité, une force. Mais ce devenir égal est tout aussi directement une division, parce qu'il ne fait qu'abolir les différences et établit par là l'unité du pouvoir en faisant une nouvelle différence, de loi et de pouvoir, qui en même temps n'est pas une différence ; Et outre que cette différence n'est pas non plus une différence, il va lui-même abolir cette différence en donnant à la force la même nature que la loi. – Mais ce mouvement ou nécessité est encore la nécessité et le mouvement de l'entendement, ou bien il n'est pas en tant que tel son objet , mais il a en lui l'électricité positive et négative, la distance, la vitesse, l'attraction et mille autres choses comme objets qui ont le contenu des moments de mouvement. Il y a tellement d'autosatisfaction à expliquer précisément parce que, en l'exprimant de cette façon, la conscience est en monologue direct avec elle-même, ne jouissant que d'elle-même, même si elle semble faire autre chose, mais en réalité ne fait que jouer avec elle-même.</p> <p>Dans la loi opposée comme renversement de la première loi, ou dans la différence interne, l'infini lui-même devient l'objet de l'entendement, mais comme tel il le manque encore en ignorant la différence en soi, l'auto-repoussant du même nom, et les inégaux qui s'attirent, répartis à nouveau en deux mondes, ou en deux éléments substantiels ; Le mouvement tel qu'il est dans l'expérience est ici pour lui un événement, et le même et le différent sont des prédicats dont l'essence est un substrat qui existe. La même chose qui est pour lui un objet dans une coquille sensuelle est pour nous dans sa forme essentielle, comme un pur concept. Cette appréhension de la différence telle qu'elle est réellement , ou l'appréhension de l'infini comme tel, est pour nous , ou en soi . L'exposé de leur concept appartient à la science ; Mais la conscience, telle qu'elle l'a directement , apparaît à nouveau comme sa propre forme ou une nouvelle forme de conscience, qui ne reconnaît pas son essence dans la précédente, mais la voit comme quelque chose de complètement différent. – Puisque ce concept d'infini est son objet, il a conscience de la différence comme quelque chose d'immédiat et également sublimé ; c'est pour soi , c'est distinguer l'indifférencié , ou la conscience de soi . Je me différencie de moi-même , et il m'apparaît immédiatement que ce qui est différencié ne l'est pas . Moi, l'éponyme, je m'éloigne de moi-même ; mais cette chose différente, sans égal, n'est immédiatement, parce qu'elle est différenciée, aucune différence pour moi. La conscience d'autrui, d'un objet en général, est elle-même nécessairement conscience de soi , se reflétant en elle-même, conscience de soi, dans son altérité. La progression nécessaire depuis les formes de conscience antérieures, dans lesquelles leur vérité était une chose, quelque chose d'autre qu'elles-mêmes, exprime le fait que non seulement la conscience des choses n'est possible que pour une conscience de soi, mais que cela seul est la vérité de ces formes sont. Mais cette vérité n'existe que pour nous, pas encore pour la conscience. Mais la conscience de soi n'est devenue que quelque chose pour elle-même , pas encore comme une unité avec la conscience en général.</p> <p>Nous voyons qu'à l'intérieur du phénomène, l'entendement n'est en réalité pas quelque chose de différent du phénomène lui-même, mais non pas comme un jeu de forces, mais éprouve la même chose dans ses moments absolument universels et leur mouvement, et en fait seulement éprouve lui-même même nom indifférencié , qui se repousse, se pose comme un intérieur différencié, mais pour lequel l' indifférence des deux est tout aussi immédiate , conscience de soi . Il s'avère que derrière ce qu'on appelle le rideau, qui est censé couvrir l'intérieur, rien ne peut être vu à moins que nous ne passions nous-mêmes derrière lui, et que nous soyons vus avec lui tout autant qu'il y a quelque chose qui peut être vu derrière lui. Mais en même temps, il s'avère que cela ne peut se faire sans toutes les circonstances ; car cette connaissance, qui est la vérité de l'idée de l'apparence et de son intérieur, n'est elle-même que le résultat d'un mouvement circonstanciel, par lequel disparaissent les modes de conscience, d'opinion, de perception et de compréhension ; et il s'avérera également que la reconnaissance de ce que la conscience connaît en se connaissant elle-même nécessite d'autres circonstances, dont l'explication est la suivante.</p> <p> IV<br class='autobr' /> La vérité<br class='autobr' /> de la certitude de soi</p> <p>Dans les modes de certitude précédents, la vérité est autre chose qu'elle-même pour la conscience. Mais le concept de cette vérité disparaît dans l'expérience de celle-ci ; de même que l'objet était directement en soi , l'être de la certitude sensuelle, la chose concrète de la perception, la puissance de l'entendement, de même il ne se révèle pas être dans la vérité, mais cet en-soi apparaît comme une manière par laquelle il ne fait que c'est pour un autre ; le concept en est éliminé dans l'objet réel, ou dans la première idée immédiate de l'expérience, et la certitude se perd dans la vérité. Mais maintenant est né ce qui n'était pas né dans ces conditions antérieures, à savoir une certitude qui est égale à sa vérité, car la certitude est elle-même son objet, et la conscience est elle-même la vérité. Il y a aussi une altérité là-dedans ; La conscience fait une distinction, mais qui est en même temps quelque chose qui n'est pas différencié pour elle. Si nous appelons concept le mouvement de la connaissance, mais l' objet , la connaissance comme unité calme, ou comme ego, nous voyons que l'objet correspond au concept non seulement pour nous, mais pour la connaissance elle-même. – Ou bien, d'une autre manière, le concept s'appelle ce qu'est l'objet en soi , mais l'objet est ce qu'il est comme objet ou pour autrui, si éclairant que l'être en soi et l'être pour un être sont différents. la même chose ; car l' en-soi est conscience ; mais c'est aussi ce pour quoi un autre (l' en-soi ) existe ; et c'est pour lui que l'en-soi de l'objet et l'être du même pour un autre sont le même ; Je est le contenu de la relation et la relation elle-même ; Il est lui-même contre un autre, et en même temps il s'étend sur cet autre, qui pour lui n'est aussi que lui-même.</p> <p>Avec la conscience de soi, nous sommes maintenant entrés dans le domaine natif de la vérité. On peut voir comment apparaît pour la première fois la forme de conscience de soi. Si l'on regarde cette nouvelle forme de connaissance, la connaissance de soi, par rapport à ce qui la précédait, la connaissance d'autrui, alors celle-ci a bel et bien disparu ; mais en même temps ses instants ont été conservés de la même manière ; et la perte est qu'ils sont présents ici tels qu'ils sont en eux-mêmes. L' être de l'opinion, l' individualité et la généralité de la perception qui lui sont opposées , ainsi que l'intérieur vide de l'entendement, ne sont plus comme des êtres, mais comme des moments de conscience de soi, c'est-à-dire comme des abstractions ou des différences, qui sont en même temps nuls et non avenus pour la conscience elle-même, ou aucune différence et sont des êtres purement en voie de disparition. Ainsi, seul le facteur principal lui-même semble avoir été perdu, à savoir la simple existence indépendante de la conscience. Mais en réalité, la conscience de soi est le reflet de l'être du monde sensible et perçu, et essentiellement le retour de l'altérité . En tant que conscience de soi, c'est le mouvement ; mais comme il ne se distingue que comme lui-même, la différence s'abolit aussitôt pour lui comme altérité ; la différence n'est pas, et ce n'est que la tautologie immobile du : je suis je ; Puisque la différence n'a pas aussi la forme de l'être , elle n'est pas conscience de soi. C'est ici pour lui l'altérité, comme être , ou comme moment différencié ; mais pour elle c'est aussi l'unité de soi avec cette différence, comme second moment différencié. Dès ce premier instant, la conscience de soi en tant que conscience est préservée , et pour elle toute l'expansion du monde sensible est préservée ; mais en même temps seulement en ce qui concerne le deuxième moment, l'unité de la conscience de soi avec elle-même ; et c'est donc pour lui une existence, qui n'est pourtant qu'une apparence ou une différence, qui en elle-même n'a pas d'être. Mais ce contraste entre son apparence et sa vérité n'a pour essence que la vérité, à savoir l'unité de la conscience de soi avec elle-même ; cela doit lui devenir essentiel ; c'est-à-dire que c'est le désir en général. En tant que conscience de soi, la conscience a désormais un double objet, l'un, l'immédiat, l'objet de la certitude sensorielle et de la perception, maiscar il est désigné par le caractère du négatif , et le second, à savoir lui-même , qui est la véritable essence et n'est initialement présent qu'à l'opposé de la première. La conscience de soi se présente ici comme le mouvement dans lequel cette opposition s'abolit et devient égale à elle-même.</p> <p>L'objet, qui est le négatif de la conscience de soi, s'est à son tour, pour nous ou en soi, tout aussi replié en soi que la conscience d'autre part. Par cette réflexion, il est devenu vie en lui-même . Ce qui distingue la conscience de soi comme étant d'elle-même, dans la mesure où elle est posée comme étant, n'a pas seulement en elle le mode de certitude et de perception sensorielles, mais se reflète en elle-même, et l'objet du désir immédiat est un être vivant . Car l' en-soi , ou le résultat général du rapport de l'entendement à l'intérieur des choses, est la distinction de ce qui ne peut être distingué, ou l'unité de ce qui est différencié. Mais cette unité, comme nous l'avons vu, est tout autant un rejet d'elle-même, et ce concept se scinde en opposition entre conscience de soi et vie ; dont l'unité est l'unité infinie des différences ; Mais ce n'est que cette unité elle-même, de sorte qu'elle n'est pas en même temps pour elle-même . Tout comme la conscience est indépendante, son objet est tout aussi indépendant. La conscience de soi, qui est absolument pour elle-même et décrit directement son objet avec le caractère du négatif, ou qui est initialement désir , fera donc plutôt l'expérience de son indépendance.</p> <p>La détermination de la vie, telle qu'elle résulte du concept ou du résultat général avec lequel nous entrons dans cette sphère, suffit à la décrire sans qu'il soit nécessaire de développer davantage sa nature ; leur cercle se décide dans les instants suivants. L' essence est l'infini comme suspension de toutes les différences, le pur mouvement de rotation des axes, le calme de soi comme infini absolument agité ; l' indépendance elle-même, dans laquelle se dissolvent les différences du mouvement ; la simple essence du temps, qui, dans cette identité, a la forme solide de l'espace. Mais les différences dans ce simple milieu général sont tout autant des différences ; car ce fluide général n'a sa nature négative que parce qu'il en est une annulation ; mais il ne peut abolir les différences si elles n'existent pas. C'est précisément ce fluide, comme l'indépendance elle-même, qui existe , ou la substance de celle-ci, dans laquelle ils sont en tant que membres distincts et parties qui existent pour eux-mêmes . L'être n'a plus le sens de l' abstraction de l'être , ni sa pure essence, l' abstraction de l'universalité ; mais leur être est précisément cette simple substance liquide du mouvement pur en soi. La différence entre ces membres les uns des autres , mais comme différence, ne consiste dans aucune autre détermination que la détermination des moments de l'infini ou du mouvement pur lui-même.</p> <p>Les membres indépendants sont pour eux-mêmes ; Mais cet être pour soi est aussi directement son reflet dans l'unité que cette unité est la division en formes indépendantes. L'unité est divisée parce qu'elle est unité absolument négative ou infinie ; et parce qu'elle est l' existence , la différence aussi n'a d'indépendance qu'en elle . Cette indépendance de la figure apparaît comme une certaine chose, pour autre chose , parce qu'elle est quelque chose de divisé ; et l' abolition de la division se fait par autre chose. Mais il s'agit tout autant d'elle-même ; car c'est précisément ce fluide qui est la substance des formes indépendantes ; mais cette substance est infinie ; La forme est donc, dans son existence même, la division ou l'abolition de son être-pour-soi.</p> <p>Si nous distinguons plus étroitement les moments contenus ici, nous voyons que nous avons d'abord l' existence des formes indépendantes, ou la suppression de ce qu'est la distinction en soi, à savoir ne pas être en soi et ne pas avoir d'existence. . Mais le deuxième moment est la soumission de cette existence à l'infinité de la différence. Il y a d'abord la forme existante ; Comme substance existant pour elle-même , ou infinie dans sa détermination, elle apparaît contre la substance générale , nie cette fluidité et cette continuité avec elle et s'affirme comme non dissoute dans ce général, mais plutôt comme séparée de celle-ci, sa nature inorganique, et être consommé en conservant le même. La vie dans le milieu fluide général, un déroulement calme des figures, devient mouvement, ou la vie comme processus . Le fluide général simple est l' en-soi , et la différence des formes est l' autre . Mais ce fluide lui-même devient l'Autre par cette différence ; car il s'agit maintenant de la différence , qui est en et pour soi, et donc du mouvement infini par lequel se consume ce milieu calme, la vie comme être vivant . – Mais cette perversion est encore une perversion en soi ; ce qui se consomme, c'est l'être ; L'individualité, qui se maintient aux dépens du général et se donne le sentiment d'unité avec elle-même, élimine précisément par là son opposition à l'autre, par laquelle elle est pour elle-même ; l' unité avec soi qu'elle se donne, c'est précisément la fluidité des différences, ou la dissolution générale . Mais inversement, l'abolition de l'existence individuelle est aussi sa création. Car puisque l' essence de la forme individuelle, la vie générale et ce qui existe en soi est en soi une substance simple, en plaçant l' autre en soi, elle élève sa simplicité., ou son essence, c'est-à-dire qu'il la divise, et cette division du fluide aveugle est précisément la position de l'individualité. La simple substance de la vie est donc la division d'elle-même en formes, et en même temps la résolution de ces différences existantes ; et la résolution de la division est tout autant une division ou une division. Cela signifie que les deux aspects qui ont été différenciés dans l'ensemble du mouvement, à savoir la conception et le processus de la vie, qui sont expliqués calmement dans le milieu général de l'indépendance, se fondent l'un dans l'autre ; cette dernière est tout autant une création qu'une abolition de la forme ; et la première, la formation, est tout autant une sublation qu'une structure. L'élément liquide lui-même n'est que l' abstraction de l'essence, ou bien il n'est réel que comme forme ; et le fait qu'il soit divisé est encore une fois une division de ce qui est divisé, ou une dissolution de celui-ci. Ce cycle tout entier constitue la vie, ni ce qui s'exprime d'abord, la continuité immédiate et la solidité de son essence, ni la forme existante et ce qui est discret en soi, ni le processus pur de celle-ci, ni même la simple synthèse de ces moments, mais le un tout qui développe et dissout son développement et se maintient simplement dans ce mouvement.</p> <p>En partant de la première unité immédiate et en passant par les moments de formation et de processus jusqu'à l'unité de ces deux moments, et en revenant ainsi à la première substance simple, cette unité réfléchie est différente de la première. Contrairement à cet être immédiat , ou exprimé comme être , ce second est l' être général , qui a tous ces moments comme suspendus en lui. C'est l' espèce simple qui n'existe pas dans le mouvement même de la vie comme cette chose simple ; mais dans ce résultat la vie désigne autre chose que ce qu'elle est, à savoir la conscience pour laquelle elle est comme cette unité, ou comme espèce.</p> <p>Mais cette autre vie, pour laquelle l' espèce en tant que telle et qui est une espèce pour elle-même, la conscience de soi, n'est d'abord qu'elle-même comme cet être simple, et a elle-même comme objet le pur moi ; Dans son expérience, qu'il s'agit maintenant d'examiner, cet objet abstrait va s'enrichir et recevoir le développement que nous avons vu dans la vie.</p> <p>Le Je simple est ce genre ou l'universel simple pour lequel les différences ne sont nulles, uniquement parce qu'il est l'être négatif des moments indépendants formés ; et la conscience de soi n'est certaine d'elle-même que par l'abolition de cet autre qui se présente à elle comme une vie indépendante ; c'est le désir . Certaine du néant de cet autre, elle se l'impose comme sa vérité, annihile l'objet indépendant et se donne ainsi la certitude de soi, comme certitude vraie , comme quelque chose qui est devenu à soi de manière objective .</p> <p>Mais dans cette satisfaction il éprouve l'indépendance de son objet. Le désir et la certitude de soi réalisés dans sa satisfaction sont conditionnés par lui, car c'est par l'abolition de cet autre ; Pour que ce soit une abolition, il faut que ce soit autre chose. La conscience de soi est donc incapable de l'abolir par sa relation négative ; Au contraire, il le crée à nouveau, tout comme le désir. C'est en effet autre chose que la conscience de soi, l'essence du désir ; et grâce à cette expérience, cette vérité lui est devenue claire. Mais en même temps, elle est tout aussi absolue en soi, et cela seulement par l'abolition de l'objet, et elle doit en être la satisfaction, parce qu'elle est la vérité. Au nom de l'indépendance de l'objet, la satisfaction ne peut être obtenue que si l'objet lui-même effectue la négation sur lui ; et il doit réaliser cette négation de lui-même, car il est en lui le négatif, et doit être ce qu'il est pour l'autre. Parce qu'elle est la négation de soi et qu'elle est en même temps indépendante, elle est conscience. Dans la vie, qui est objet du désir, la négation est soit dans un autre , à savoir dans le désir, soit comme détermination contre une autre forme indifférente, soit comme sa nature générale inorganique . Mais cette nature générale indépendante, dans laquelle la négation est absolue, est l'espèce en tant que telle, ou comme conscience de soi. La conscience de soi ne trouve sa satisfaction que dans une autre conscience de soi.</p> <p>Ce n'est qu'à ces trois moments que le concept de conscience de soi est complet ; a) le moi pur et indifférencié est son premier objet immédiat. b) Mais cette immédiateté est elle-même médiation absolue ; elle n'existe que comme abolition de l'objet indépendant, ou elle est désir. La satisfaction du désir est en effet le reflet de la conscience de soi en soi, ou la certitude devenue vérité. c) Mais la vérité est plutôt la double réflexion, le dédoublement de la conscience de soi. C'est un objet pour la conscience qui pose son altérité ou sa différence comme insignifiante et est indépendant à cet égard. La seule forme vivante différenciée abolit bien son indépendance dans le processus même de la vie, mais avec sa différence elle cesse d'être ce qu'elle est ; Mais l'objet de la conscience de soi est tout aussi indépendant dans cette négativité de lui-même ; et ainsi c'est lui-même une espèce, un fluide général dans la particularité de sa séparation ; il vit la conscience de soi.</p> <p>C'est une conscience de soi pour une conscience de soi . Ce n'est que grâce à cela qu'il est réellement possible ; car c'est seulement en cela qu'il devient l'unité de lui-même dans son altérité ; Je , qui est l'objet de son concept, n'est en fait pas un objet ; Mais l'objet du désir n'est indépendant que parce qu'il est la substance générale indestructible, l'être liquide et égal à lui-même. Puisque la conscience de soi est l'objet, elle est autant moi que l'objet. – Cela signifie que le concept d'esprit est déjà à notre disposition. Ce qui devient plus loin pour la conscience, c'est l'expérience, qui est l'esprit, cette substance absolue, qui est l'unité du même dans la complète liberté et indépendance de son contraire, à savoir les différentes consciences de soi qui existent pour elles-mêmes ; Moi , qui est nous , et nous , qui est moi. La conscience n'a son tournant que dans la conscience de soi, en tant que concept de l'esprit, où elle sort de la lueur colorée du monde sensoriel et de la nuit vide de l'au-delà suprasensoriel pour entrer dans le jour spirituel du présent.</p> <p>Une<br class='autobr' /> indépendance et une non-indépendance<br class='autobr' /> de la conscience de soi ;<br class='autobr' /> Domination et servitude</p> <p>La conscience de soi est en et pour soi , en ce sens qu'elle est pour un autre en et pour soi ; c'est-à-dire qu'il est seulement reconnu comme quelque chose. Le concept de cette unité dans son dédoublement, de l'infini qui se réalise dans la conscience de soi, est un enchevêtrement multiforme et ambigu, de sorte que ses moments sont en partie tenus exactement à part, en partie dans cette distinction comme non différenciés ou toujours pris en compte. leur sens opposé et doivent être reconnus. L'ambiguïté de ce qui est différencié réside dans la nature de la conscience de soi, qui est infinie ou directement opposée à la détermination dans laquelle elle est posée. La déconstruction du concept de cette unité spirituelle dans son dédoublement nous présente le mouvement de reconnaissance .</p> <p>Pour la conscience de soi, c'est une conscience de soi différente ; il est devenu hors de lui . Cela a un double sens : premièrement , il s'est perdu, parce qu'il se retrouve comme un autre être ; Deuxièmement , elle a ainsi aboli l'autre, parce qu'elle ne voit pas l'autre comme un être, mais elle -même dans l'autre.</p> <p>Cette altérité doit être abolie ; c'est l'abolition du premier double sens, et donc lui-même d'un deuxième double sens ; Premièrement , il doit viser à abolir l' autre être indépendant pour devenir ainsi sûr de lui-même en tant qu'être ; Deuxièmement , il s'agit de s'abolir soi-même , car cet autre, c'est soi-même.</p> <p>Cette abolition ambiguë de son altérité ambiguë est aussi un retour ambigu en soi ; car d'abord, en l'abolissant, il se retrouve ; car il redevient le même par l'abolition de son altérité ; Mais en deuxième lieu , elle lui rend de la même manière l'autre conscience de soi, parce qu'elle était elle-même dans l'autre, elle annule cet être dans l'autre et libère ainsi à nouveau l'autre.</p> <p>Mais ce mouvement de la conscience de soi par rapport à une autre conscience de soi a été présenté ainsi, comme l'action de l'une ; mais cette action de l'un elle-même a le double sens d' être tout autant son action que celle de l'autre ; car l'autre est tout aussi indépendant, autonome, et il n'y a rien en lui qui ne vienne par lui-même. La première n'a pas devant elle l'objet puisqu'il n'existe initialement que pour le désir, mais plutôt un objet qui existe indépendamment et sur lequel elle ne peut donc rien faire pour elle-même, à moins qu'elle ne se fasse à elle-même ce qu'elle lui fait. Le mouvement est donc simplement le double des deux consciences de soi. Chacun voit les autres faire la même chose que lui ; Chaque moi fait ce qu'il exige de l'autre ; et ne fait donc ce qu'il fait que dans la mesure où l'autre fait de même ; une action unilatérale serait inutile ; car ce qui est censé arriver ne peut se produire que par les deux.</p> <p>L'action est donc ambiguë non seulement en ce qu'elle est une action contre elle- même aussi bien que contre l'autre , mais aussi en ce sens qu'elle est l'action de l'un aussi bien que de l'autre .</p> <p>Dans ce mouvement, nous voyons se répéter, mais dans la conscience, le processus qui se présentait comme un jeu de forces. Ce qui était pour nous dans celui-là est ici pour les extrêmes eux-mêmes. Le milieu est la conscience de soi qui se décompose en extrêmes, et chaque extrême est cet échange de sa détermination et sa transition absolue vers le contraire. Mais en tant que conscience, elle vient certainement hors d'elle-même , mais en étant hors d'elle-même, elle est en même temps retenue en elle-même, pour elle-même , et son extérieur d'elle-même est pour elle . C'est pour cela qu'elle est immédiatement une autre conscience et ne l'est pas ; et aussi que cet autre n'est que pour soi, en ce qu'il s'abolit comme étant pour soi, et n'est pour soi que dans l'être pour soi d'autrui. Chacun est pour l'autre le milieu par lequel chacun communique et s'unit à lui-même, et chaque être est un être immédiat pour lui-même et pour l'autre, qui en même temps ne l'est pour lui-même que par cette médiation. Ils se reconnaissent comme se reconnaissant .</p> <p>Ce concept pur de reconnaissance, le dédoublement de la conscience de soi dans son unité, doit maintenant être considéré pour voir comment son processus apparaît pour la conscience de soi. Il représentera d'abord le côté de l' inégalité des deux, ou l'émergence du milieu dans les extrêmes, qui, en tant qu'extrêmes, sont opposés l'un à l'autre, et l'un n'est que quelque chose de reconnu, l'autre seulement quelque chose de reconnu.</p> <p>La conscience de soi est avant tout simplement un être pour soi, équivalent à soi en excluant tout le reste d'elle-même ; Pour lui, son essence et son objet absolu, c'est moi ; et dans cette immédiateté , ou dans cet être de son être-pour-soi, il est individuel . Ce qui est autre est décrit comme un objet non essentiel ayant un caractère négatif. Mais l'autre est aussi la conscience de soi ; un individu apparaît à un individu. Ils apparaissent si directement les uns aux autres à la manière des objets communs ; figures indépendantes , consciences immergées dans l' être de la vie - car ici l'objet existant s'est déterminé comme vie - qui représentent l'une pour l'autre le mouvement d'abstraction absolue, pour annihiler tout être immédiat, et n'être que l'être purement négatif de soi-même. consciences égales non accomplies, ou ne se sont pas encore présentées être pour soi , c'est-à-dire comme conscience de soi . Chacun est certain de lui-même, mais pas de l'autre, et donc sa propre certitude n'a pas encore de vérité en elle-même ; car sa vérité serait seulement que son propre être pour soi se présente à lui comme un objet indépendant, ou, ce qui revient au même, que l'objet se présente comme cette pure certitude de lui-même. Mais cela n'est pas possible selon le concept de reconnaissance, sauf que comme l'autre pour lui, ainsi lui pour l'autre, chacun en soi à travers ses propres actions, et encore à travers les actions de l'autre, cette pure abstraction du for- lui-même- a accompli le sien.</p> <p>Mais la représentation de la conscience de soi comme pure abstraction de la conscience de soi consiste à se montrer comme une pure négation de sa forme objective, ou à montrer qu'elle n'est liée à aucune existence particulière , pas du tout à l'individualité générale de l'existence. , ne pas être lié à la vie . Cette représentation est la double action ; Faire l'autre, et faire par soi-même. Dans la mesure où c'est le faire de l'autre , chacun va à la mort de l'autre. Mais la deuxième chose, faire par soi-même , est également présente ici ; parce que cela implique de risquer sa propre vie. La relation entre les deux consciences de soi est déterminée de telle manière qu'elles font leurs preuves et se prouvent l'une l'autre à travers la lutte à mort . – Ils doivent se lancer dans ce combat parce qu'ils doivent élever la certitude d'eux-mêmes, d'être pour eux-mêmes , à la vérité sur les autres et sur eux-mêmes. Et c'est seulement par l'attachement à la vie que s'établit la liberté, par laquelle il est prouvé que la conscience de soi ne se limite pas à l'être , ni à la manière immédiate dont elle apparaît, ni à l'immersion dans la propagation de la vie - le essence, mais plutôt qu'il n'y a rien en elle qui ne soit pour elle un moment de disparition, qu'elle n'est qu'un pur être pour soi . L'individu qui n'a pas osé vivre peut certainement être reconnu comme une personne ; mais elle n'a pas atteint la vérité de cette reconnaissance en tant que conscience de soi indépendante. De même chacun doit risquer la mort de l'autre comme il risque sa vie ; car l'autre ne lui importe pas plus que lui-même ; son être se présente à lui comme autre chose, il est hors de lui ; il faut qu'elle abolisse son être hors d'elle-même ; l'autre est une conscience multiplement consciente d'elle-même et existante ; il doit considérer son altérité comme un pur être pour soi ou comme une négation absolue.</p> <p>Mais cette preuve par la mort annihile aussi la vérité qui devait en émerger, ainsi que la certitude d'elle-même en général ; car de même que la vie est la position naturelle de la conscience, indépendance sans négativité absolue, de même elle en est la négation naturelle , négation sans indépendance, qui reste donc sans le sens requis de reconnaissance. Par la mort, il devint certain que tous deux risquaient leur vie et la méprisaient en eux-mêmes et chez l'autre ; mais pas pour ceux qui ont mené cette bataille. Ils élèvent leur conscience dans cet être étranger qu'est l'existence naturelle, ou bien ils s'élèvent et s'élèvent comme des extrêmes qui veulent être pour eux-mêmes . Mais le moment essentiel de la décomposition en extrêmes de déterminations opposées disparaît du jeu du changement ; et le milieu s'effondre en une unité morte, qui se décompose en extrêmes morts, simplement existants et non opposés ; et les deux ne se donnent pas et ne se reçoivent pas l'un de l'autre par la conscience, mais se laissent seulement libres comme des choses, indifférents. Leur acte est une négation abstraite, non la négation de la conscience, qui abolit de telle sorte qu'elle préserve et préserve ce qui a été aboli , et survit ainsi à son abolition.</p> <p>Dans cette expérience, il devient clair pour la conscience de soi que la vie lui est aussi essentielle que la pure conscience de soi. Dans la conscience de soi immédiate, le Je simple est l'objet absolu, qui est cependant la médiation absolue pour nous ou en soi, et dont l'indépendance existante est le moment essentiel. La dissolution de cette unité simple est le résultat de la première expérience ; À travers elle, une pure conscience de soi est posée, et une conscience qui n'est pas pure pour elle-même, mais pour un autre, c'est-à-dire comme étant une conscience ou une conscience sous forme de chose . Les deux moments sont essentiels ; - puisqu'ils sont initialement inégaux et opposés, et que leur reflet dans l'unité n'a pas encore surgi, ils existent comme deux formes de conscience opposées ; l'un est l'indépendant, dont l'essence est l'être pour soi, l'autre le dépendant, dont l'essence est la vie ou l'être pour autrui ; c'est le maître , c'est le serviteur .</p> <p>Le Seigneur est la conscience qui existe pour elle-même , mais non plus seulement le concept de celle-ci, mais la conscience qui existe pour elle-même, qui est médiatisée par une autre conscience avec elle-même, c'est-à-dire à travers celle dont l'essence est qu'elle est avec l'être indépendant ou le la chose est synthétisée en général. Le Seigneur se réfère à ces deux moments, à une chose comme telle, objet du désir, et à la conscience dont la chose est l'essence ; et en ce que a) en tant que concept de conscience de soi, il est une relation directe d' être pour soi , mais b) maintenant en même temps comme médiation, ou comme être pour soi qui n'est que pour soi à travers un autre, alors il se rapporte a) directement aux deux, et b) indirectement l'un à l'autre à travers l'autre. Le maître entretient des relations indirectes avec le serviteur à travers son existence indépendante ; car c'est précisément à cela que le serviteur est tenu ; C'est sa chaîne dont il n'a pas pu faire abstraction dans le combat et s'est donc montré dépendant de son indépendance dans la chose. Mais le Seigneur est le pouvoir sur cet être, parce qu'il a prouvé dans la bataille qu'il ne le voit que comme une chose négative ; Puisqu'il est le pouvoir sur lui, mais que cet être est le pouvoir sur l'autre, alors dans cette conclusion il a cet autre sous lui. De même, le maître se réfère à la chose indirectement à travers le serviteur ; Le serviteur, comme la conscience de soi en général, se rapporte également négativement à la chose et l'annule ; mais en même temps, il est indépendant pour lui et il ne peut donc pas y faire face jusqu'à le détruire en le niant, ou bien il se contente de le traiter . Pour le Seigneur, au contraire, par cette médiation, la relation directe en devient la pure négation, ou la jouissance ; Ce que le désir n'a pas réussi, il parvient à le gérer et à se satisfaire avec plaisir. Le désir n'y est pas parvenu à cause de l'indépendance de la chose ; Mais le maître, qui a inséré le serviteur entre elle et lui, ne fait que s'unir à la nature dépendante de la chose et en jouir purement ; mais il laisse l'aspect de l'indépendance au domestique qui y travaille.</p> <p>Dans ces deux moments, la reconnaissance du Seigneur se fait à travers une conscience différente ; car cela s'établit en eux comme quelque chose d'inessentiel, tantôt dans le traitement de la chose, tantôt dans la dépendance d'une existence particulière ; Dans les deux cas, il ne peut devenir maître de l'être et atteindre la négation absolue. Il y a donc ici ce moment de reconnaissance où l'autre conscience s'abolit en tant qu'être pour soi, et fait ainsi elle-même ce que la première fait contre elle. De même l'autre moment, que cette action du second est l'action propre du premier ; car ce que fait le serviteur est en réalité l'œuvre du maître ; à cela il n'y a que l'être pour soi, l'essence ; Il est la pure puissance négative pour laquelle la chose n'est rien, et donc la pure action essentielle dans ce rapport ; Le serviteur, cependant, ne fait pas un acte pur, mais plutôt inessentiel. Mais le moment de la reconnaissance effective manque : ce que le maître fait contre l'autre, il le fait aussi contre lui-même, et ce que le serviteur fait contre lui-même, il le fait aussi. contre l'autre. Cela a abouti à une reconnaissance unilatérale et inégale.</p> <p>Pour le Seigneur, la conscience non essentielle est l'objet qui constitue la vérité de la certitude de lui-même. Mais il est clair que cet objet ne correspond pas à son concept, mais plutôt que dans ce que le Seigneur lui-même a accompli, il est devenu quelque chose de complètement différent d'une conscience indépendante. Pour lui, il ne s'agit pas d'une telle chose, mais plutôt d'une question de dépendance ; Il n'est donc pas certain de l'être-pour-soi , comme la vérité, mais sa vérité est plutôt la conscience non essentielle et l'action non essentielle de celle-ci.</p> <p>La vérité de la conscience indépendante est donc la conscience servile . Cela apparaît d'abord en dehors de soi et non comme la vérité de la conscience de soi. Mais de même que la domination a montré que son essence est le contraire de ce qu'elle veut être, de même l'esclavage, dans son exécution, deviendra le contraire de ce qu'il est immédiatement ; Elle rentrera en elle-même comme une conscience refoulée en elle-même et se tournera vers une véritable indépendance.</p> <p>Nous avons seulement vu ce qu'est l'esclavage par rapport à la domination. Mais il s'agit d'une conscience de soi, et ce qu'elle est en soi doit maintenant être considéré. Tout d'abord, pour le bondage, le maître est l'essence ; Ainsi, la conscience indépendante qui existe pour elle-même est pour elle la vérité , qui cependant n'est pas encore en elle pour elle . Seulement, elle a effectivement en elle cette vérité de pure négativité et d'être pour soi ; parce qu'elle a expérimenté cette essence en elle . Cette conscience n'avait pas peur de ceci ou de cela, ni de tel ou tel moment, mais plutôt de son être tout entier ; car il a ressenti la peur de la mort, du Seigneur absolu. Il se dissolvait intérieurement, tremblait en lui-même et tout ce qui était fixé en lui tremblait. Mais ce pur mouvement général, la fluidité absolue de toute existence, est la simple essence de la conscience de soi, la négativité absolue, le pur être pour soi qui est présent dans cette conscience. Ce moment de pur être pour soi est aussi pour lui , car dans le Seigneur il est son objet . D'ailleurs, il ne s'agit pas seulement de cette dissolution générale en général , mais elle l'accomplit effectivement dans le service ; À chaque instant , il abolit son attachement à l'existence naturelle et s'en éloigne.</p> <p>Mais le sentiment de pouvoir absolu en général et dans le service individuel n'est que la dissolution en soi , et bien que la crainte du Seigneur soit le commencement de la sagesse, la conscience en elle est pour elle-même et non pour elle-même . Mais à travers le travail, il revient à lui-même. Au moment qui correspond au désir dans la conscience du Seigneur, le côté non essentiel du rapport à la chose semble être tombé du côté de la conscience servante, dans la mesure où la chose conserve son indépendance. Le désir s'est réservé la pure négation de l'objet et par là même le sentiment pur de soi. Mais cette satisfaction n'est elle-même qu'une disparition, car il lui manque le côté objectif ou l'existence . Le travail, en revanche, est désir inhibé , disparition arrêtée , ou il se forme . Le rapport négatif à l'objet devient sa forme et permanent ; parce que l'objet a une indépendance pour le travailleur. Ce centre négatif ou l' action formatrice est en même temps l'individualité ou le pur être pour soi de la conscience, qui entre désormais dans l'élément de demeurer dans l'œuvre en dehors d'elle ; Grâce à cela, la conscience active parvient à la perception d'un être indépendant, comme elle-même .</p> <p>Mais la formation n'a pas seulement ce sens positif, que la conscience servante devient un être comme un pur être pour soi ; mais aussi le négatif, contre son premier instant, la peur. Car dans la formation de la chose, sa propre négativité, son être pour soi, ne devient son objet que parce qu'elle annule la forme opposée existante . Mais ce négatif objectif est précisément l'être étranger devant lequel il tremblait. Mais maintenant, il détruit ce négatif étranger, se plaçant comme tel dans l'élément du maintien ; et devient ainsi pour soi , un être pour soi . Dans le Seigneur, être-pour-soi est autre chose pour lui ou seulement pour lui-même ; dans la peur il y a l'être pour soi ; En se formant, l'être pour soi devient sien pour lui, et il prend conscience qu'il est lui-même en et pour soi. Parce que la forme est mise à l'extérieur , elle ne devient pas autre chose qu'elle ; car c'est précisément cela qui est son pur être pour soi, qui en lui devient vérité pour lui. C'est par cette redécouverte de son sens propre , notamment dans le travail, où il ne semblait être qu'un sens étranger . – Les deux moments de peur et de service en général, ainsi que d'éducation, sont nécessaires à cette réflexion, et en même temps tous deux de manière générale. Sans la discipline du service et de l'obéissance, la peur reste confinée au formel et ne s'étend pas au-delà de la réalité consciente de l'existence. Sans formation, la peur reste intérieure et silencieuse, et la conscience ne devient pas pour elle-même. Si la conscience se forme sans la première peur absolue, alors elle n'est qu'un vain sentiment en soi ; car sa forme ou négativité n'est pas la négativité elle-même ; et sa formation ne peut donc pas lui donner la conscience d'elle-même comme essence. S'il n'a pas enduré une peur absolue, mais seulement une certaine peur, alors la nature négative lui est restée extérieure ; sa substance n'en a pas été complètement infectée. Puisque tous les accomplissements de sa conscience naturelle ne sont pas devenus instables, il appartient encore à un être déterminé ; le propre sens de chacun est l'entêtement , une liberté qui reste encore dans l'esclavage. De même que la forme pure ne peut pas devenir pour lui une essence, de même elle l'est peu, considérée comme une diffusion sur l'individu, une formation générale, un concept absolu, mais une compétence qui n'est puissante que sur certaines choses, et non sur le pouvoir général. et l'objectif entier étant .</p> <p>B<br class='autobr' /> liberté de conscience de soi ;<br class='autobr' /> Stoïcisme, scepticisme<br class='autobr' /> et conscience malheureuse</p> <p>Pour la conscience de soi indépendante, d'une part, seule la pure abstraction du moi est son essence, et d'autre part, à mesure qu'elle se développe et se donne des différences, cette distinction ne devient pas un être objectif en soi ; Cette conscience de soi ne devient donc pas un ego véritablement différent dans sa simplicité ou qui reste le même dans cette distinction absolue. La conscience, au contraire, refoulée en elle-même, devient l'objet dans la formation comme forme des choses formées, et dans le Seigneur elle voit en même temps l'être pour soi comme conscience. Mais pour la conscience servante en tant que telle, ces deux moments – lui-même en tant qu'objet indépendant, et cet objet en tant que conscience, et donc son propre être – s'effondrent. Mais puisque pour nous ou en soi la forme et l' être pour soi sont les mêmes, et que dans le concept de conscience indépendante l' être en soi est la conscience, alors le côté de l' être en soi ou de la chose est la même chose. c'est ce qui a reçu une forme dans le travail, aucune autre substance que la conscience, et une nouvelle forme de conscience de soi est devenue pour nous ; une conscience qui, en tant qu'infini, ou pur mouvement de conscience, est l'essence ; qui pense , ou est la conscience de soi libre. Car non pas comme un Je abstrait , mais comme un Je, qui a en même temps le sens d' être en soi , d'être un objet pour lui-même, ou de se rapporter à l'être objectif de telle manière qu'il a le sens d' être. Le pour-soi de la conscience, pour lequel il existe, s'appelle penser . – Dans la pensée, l'objet ne se déplace pas en idées ou en formes, mais en concepts , c'est-à-dire en un être en soi différencié, qui n'est pas immédiatement distinct de lui-même pour la conscience. Ce qui est imaginé, formé, étant , en tant que tel, a la forme d'être autre chose que la conscience ; Mais un concept est en même temps un être - et cette différence, en tant qu'il est en soi, est son contenu déterminé - mais du fait que ce contenu est en même temps un être compris, il reste directement conscient de son unité. avec cet être déterminé et différencié ; ce n'est pas comme dans le cas de l'idée, où il faut encore se rappeler particulièrement que telle est son idée ; mais le concept est directement mon concept . je penseJe suis libre parce que je ne suis pas dans un autre, mais je reste simplement avec moi-même, et l'objet qui est mon être est mon être-pour-moi dans une unité indivise ; et mon mouvement dans les concepts est un mouvement en moi-même. - Mais dans cette détermination de cette forme de conscience de soi il est essentiel de constater qu'il s'agit de la conscience pensante en général ou de son objet, unité immédiate de l'être-en-soi et de l'être - pour-soi est le sien . La conscience du même nom, qui se repousse d'elle-même, devient un élément qui existe en elle-même ; mais cet élément n'existe que comme être général en général, non comme cet être objectif dans le développement et le mouvement de son être divers.</p> <p>Comme on le sait, cette liberté de conscience de soi, apparue comme un phénomène conscient dans l'histoire de l'esprit, était appelée stoïcisme . Son principe est que la conscience est un être pensant et que quelque chose n'a d'essence pour elle, ou n'est vrai et bon pour elle, que lorsque la conscience se comporte comme un être pensant.</p> <p>L'étendue multiple et différente, l'isolement et la complexité de la vie sont l'objet contre lequel opèrent le désir et le travail. Cette activité multiple s'est maintenant réduite à la simple distinction qui est dans le pur mouvement de la pensée. Ce n'est pas la différence qui se présente comme une chose spécifique , ou comme la conscience d'une existence naturelle spécifique , comme un sentiment, ou comme un désir et un but pour celle-ci , qu'elle soit posée par sa propre conscience ou par celle de quelqu'un d'autre . , qui a plus d'essence, mais seulement cette Différence qui est une différence imaginée ou qui n'est pas immédiatement différente de Moi. Cette conscience est donc négative envers le rapport entre domination et servitude ; Son action n'est pas d'avoir sa vérité dans la règle chez le serviteur, ni comme un esclave sa vérité dans la volonté du maître et dans son service, mais d'être libre, comme sur le trône, dans les chaînes, en toute dépendance de son existence individuelle, et d'entretenir l'absence de vie, qui se retire constamment du mouvement de l'existence, du travail comme de la souffrance, dans la simple essence de la pensée . L'entêtement est la liberté qui s'attache à un individu et s'inscrit dans l'esclavage, mais le stoïcisme est la liberté qui en découle toujours directement et renvoie à la pure universalité de la pensée ; en tant que forme générale de l'esprit du monde, elle ne pouvait apparaître qu'à l'époque de la peur et de la servitude générales, mais aussi d'une éducation générale qui avait accru la capacité de former jusqu'à penser.</p> <p>Si l'essence de cette conscience de soi n'est ni quelque chose d'autre qu'elle, ni la pure abstraction du Je, mais le Moi, qui a l'altérité en lui, mais comme une différence imaginée, de sorte que dans son altérité, il est immédiatement revenu à lui-même ; donc son essence n'est en même temps qu'un être abstrait . La liberté de la conscience de soi est indifférente à l'existence naturelle et l'a donc libérée tout aussi librement , et la réflexion est double . La liberté de pensée n'a pour vérité que la pensée pure , qui est sans l'accomplissement de la vie ; et n'est donc que le concept de liberté, et non la liberté vivante elle-même ; car pour elle, la seule pensée en général est l'essence, la forme en tant que telle, qui s'est éloignée de l'indépendance des choses et s'est repliée sur elle-même. Mais puisque l'individualité doit se présenter comme vivante comme agissante, ou que comme pensant doit appréhender le monde vivant comme un système de pensée, alors dans la pensée elle-même il doit y avoir un contenu de ce qui est bon pour cette expansion , et de ce qui est vrai pour cette expansion. cette expansion ; de sorte que dans ce qui est pour la conscience, il n'y aurait d'autre ingrédient que le concept, qui est l'essence. Mais de même qu'il se sépare ici comme abstraction de la diversité des choses, il n'a pas de contenu en soi , mais un contenu donné . La conscience détruit le contenu en tant qu'être étranger en le pensant ; mais le concept est un concept déterminé, et cette détermination est ce qu'il a d'étrange. Le stoïcisme était donc embarrassé lorsqu'on l' interrogeait sur le critère de vérité en général, c'est-à-dire en fait sur le contenu de la pensée elle-même . Lorsqu'il lui demandait ce qui était bon et vrai, il répondait encore une fois à la pensée creuse elle-même ; La vérité et le bien devraient consister en la rationalité. Mais cette identité de pensée n'est que la forme pure dans laquelle rien n'est déterminé ; Les mots généraux sur la vérité et le bien, la sagesse et la vertu, avec lesquels il doit s'arrêter, sont généralement édifiants, mais comme ils ne peuvent pas réellement élargir le contenu, ils deviennent vite ennuyeux.</p> <p>Cette conscience pensante telle qu'elle s'est déterminée elle-même, comme liberté abstraite, n'est donc que la négation inachevée de l'altérité ; S'étant seulement retiré de l'existence en soi , il ne s'est pas accompli en elle comme une négation absolue de celle-ci. Pour lui, le contenu est seulement considéré comme une pensée, mais aussi comme une certaine pensée , et en même temps la détermination comme telle.</p> <p>Le scepticisme est la réalisation de ce dont le stoïcisme n'est que le concept - et l'expérience réelle, qui est la liberté de pensée ; Elle est intrinsèquement négative et doit se présenter comme telle. Avec le reflet de la conscience de soi dans les simples pensées d'elle-même, l'existence indépendante ou la détermination durable est en réalité tombée de l'infini ; Dans le scepticisme, la conscience prend désormais conscience de l'insignifiance totale et de la non-indépendance de cet autre ; La pensée devient la pensée complète qui détruit l'existence du monde aux déterminations multiples , et la négativité de la libre conscience de soi devient une véritable négativité dans cette forme diversifiée de la vie. –Il est clair que de même que le stoïcisme correspond au concept de conscience indépendante , apparue comme un rapport de domination et de servitude, de même le scepticisme correspond à la prise de conscience de celle-ci, comme direction négative vers l'altérité, le désir et le travail. Mais si le désir et le travail ne pouvaient réaliser la négation de la conscience de soi, alors cette orientation polémique contre l'indépendance multiple des choses réussirait parce que, en tant que conscience de soi libre et parachevée d'avance, elle se retourne contre elle ; plus spécifique, parce qu'il a la pensée , ou l'infini, en soi, et en cela les indépendances selon leur différence ne sont que comme des quantités évanouissantes. Les différences, qui dans la pensée pure de soi ne sont que l'abstraction des différences, deviennent ici toutes les différences, et tout être différencié devient une différence de conscience de soi.</p> <p>C'est ce qui détermine les actions du scepticisme en général et ses modalités . Il montre le mouvement dialectique qui est certitude sensorielle, perception et compréhension ; tout comme la non-existence de ce qui compte comme déterminé dans la relation entre gouverner et servir, et de ce qui est considéré comme certain par la pensée abstraite elle-même . En même temps , cette relation contient une certaine manière dans laquelle les lois morales sont également présentes en tant que commandements du gouvernement ; Mais les déterminations dans la pensée abstraite sont des concepts scientifiques dans lesquels la pensée sans contenu s'étend et, d'une manière qui n'est en réalité qu'externe, le concept est attaché à son être indépendant, qui constitue son contenu, et n'a que certains concepts comme valables, qu'ils soient aussi de pures abstractions.</p> <p>La dialectique comme mouvement négatif, parce qu'elle est immédiate , apparaît d'abord à la conscience comme quelque chose à quoi elle s'abandonne et qui ne vient pas par elle-même. Le scepticisme , en revanche, est un moment de conscience de soi, qui ne laisse pas disparaître ce qui est vrai et réel sans savoir comment, mais qui, dans la certitude de sa liberté, laisse disparaître cette autre chose pour ceux qui se donnent vraiment ; non seulement l'objectif en tant que tel, mais son propre comportement à son égard, dans lequel il est considéré comme objectif et affirmé, et donc aussi sa perception , ainsi que sa fixation de ce qu'il risque de perdre, le sophisme et sa vérité extérieure . cela est certain et établi ; par laquelle la négation consciente de soi lui permet d'obtenir la certitude de sa liberté , d'en faire l'expérience et de l' élever ainsi à la vérité . Ce qui disparaît, c'est le défini, ou la différence, qui, quelles que soient ses origines et ses origines, s'impose comme plus fixe et plus immuable. Il n'a rien de permanent et doit disparaître de la pensée, car ce qui est différent, c'est précisément cela, n'étant pas en soi , mais n'ayant son essence que dans un autre ; Mais la pensée est la compréhension de cette nature de la différenciation ; c'est l'être négatif en tant qu'être simple.</p> <p>La conscience de soi sceptique expérimente donc sa propre liberté dans le changement de tout ce qui veut s'établir pour elle, comme donné et maintenu par elle-même ; C'est cette ataraxie de penser par soi-même, la certitude immuable et vraie de soi-même . Il ne surgit pas d'un étranger dont les multiples évolutions se seraient effondrées sur lui-même, du coup ayant derrière lui son devenir ; mais la conscience elle-même est le trouble dialectique absolu , ce mélange d'idées sensuelles et pensées dont les différences s'effondrent et dont l'égalité se dissout à nouveau - parce qu'elle est elle-même la détermination contre l' inégal . Mais cette conscience, au lieu d'être une même conscience, n'est en réalité qu'une confusion tout à fait accidentelle, le vertige d'un désordre toujours générateur. C'est cela pour vous ; car elle entretient et produit elle-même cette émouvante confusion. Il reconnaît donc également qu'il s'agit d'une conscience individuelle complètement accidentelle - une conscience empirique , qui est guidée par ce qui n'a pas de réalité pour elle, qui obéit à ce qui n'est pas pour elle un être, qui fait et amène à la réalité ce que n'a aucune vérité pour lui. Mais de même qu'il se considère ainsi comme une vie individuelle, accidentelle et en fait animale, et comme une conscience de soi perdue , au contraire, il se constitue aussi comme une même chose générale ; car c'est la négativité de toute individualité et de toute différence. De cette identité, ou plutôt en soi, il retombe dans ce hasard et cette confusion, car c'est précisément cette négativité mouvante qui ne concerne que les individus et traîne avec les choses aléatoires. Cette conscience est donc ce va-et-vient inconscient d'un aller-retour d'un extrême de la même conscience de soi à l'autre de la conscience accidentelle, confuse et déroutante. Il ne réunit pas lui-même ces deux pensées ; Tantôt il reconnaît sa liberté comme une élévation au-dessus de toute confusion et de toute contingence de l'existence, tantôt il se reconnaît retombant dans l'insignifiance et y flottant. Il permet que le contenu non essentiel disparaisse dans sa pensée, mais c'est précisément en cela qu'il est la conscience de quelque chose de non essentiel ; elle exprime la disparition absolue , mais l' expression est, et cette conscience est la disparition prononcée ; il exprime le néant de voir, d'entendre, etc., et il voit, entend, etc., lui-même ; elle exprime la nullité des êtres moraux et en fait les puissances de son action. Ses actions et ses paroles se contredisent toujours, et il porte également avec lui la double conscience contradictoire de l'immuabilité et de l'égalité, et du hasard et de l'inégalité complets. Mais il met de côté cette contradiction en lui-même ; et se comporte à son égard comme dans son mouvement purement négatif en général. Si on lui montre l'égalité , elle montre l'inégalité ; et comme ce qu'elle vient d'exprimer lui est maintenant présenté, elle se met à démontrer l' égalité ; Son discours est en fait une querelle entre des garçons têtus, dont l'un dit A quand l'autre dit B, et encore B quand l'autre dit A, et qui, en se contredisant , achètent la joie de rester en contradiction les uns avec les autres .</p> <p>Dans le scepticisme, la conscience se vit en réalité comme une conscience contradictoire ; De cette expérience émerge une forme nouvelle , réunissant les deux idées que le scepticisme maintient à part. L'inconscience du scepticisme sur lui-même doit disparaître car c'est en fait une conscience qui a en elle ces deux voies. Cette nouvelle forme est ainsi celle qui est pour elle-même la double conscience d'elle-même comme celui qui se libère, immuable et identique, et d'elle-même comme celui qui se confond et se pervertit absolument - et la conscience de cette contradiction. – Dans le stoïcisme, la conscience de soi est la simple liberté de soi ; Dans le scepticisme, il se réalise, détruit l'autre côté de l'existence déterminée, mais se double plutôt et est désormais double. De ce fait, le dédoublement, qui était auparavant réparti entre deux individus, le maître et le serviteur, est redevenu un ; Le dédoublement de la conscience de soi en soi, qui est essentiel dans le concept d'esprit, est ici présent, mais pas encore son unité, etla conscience malheureuse est la conscience d'elle-même comme être dédoublé seulement contradictoire.</p> <p>Cette conscience malheureuse et divisée en elle-même doit donc, parce que cette contradiction de son essence est une conscience d'elle-même, dans laquelle une conscience a toujours aussi l'autre, et donc directement de chacune, dans la mesure où elle pense être parvenue à la victoire et paix de l'unité, en soit à nouveau expulsé. Mais son véritable retour en lui-même, ou sa réconciliation avec lui-même, représentera le concept de l'esprit qui a pris vie et est venu à l'existence, parce qu'il a déjà ceci en lui : en tant que conscience indivise, il est double ; C'est lui-même le regard d'une conscience de soi dans une autre, et il est lui-même les deux, et l'unité des deux est aussi son essence, mais ce n'est pas encore cette essence elle-même , pas encore l'unité des deux.</p> <p>Puisqu'il n'est d'abord que l' unité immédiate des deux, mais que pour lui les deux ne sont pas identiques mais opposés, l'un, c'est-à-dire le simple, l'immuable, est pour lui l' essence ; mais l'autre, le multiple changeant, comme l' inessentiel . Les deux sont des êtres étrangers l'un à l'autre ; Lui-même, parce qu'il est la conscience de cette contradiction, se place du côté de la conscience changeante et est lui-même l'inessentiel ; mais en tant que conscience de l'immuabilité, ou de l'être simple, elle doit en même temps tendre à se libérer de l'inessentiel, c'est-à-dire à se libérer de soi. Car bien qu'en soi seul le changeant et l'immuable lui soient étrangers, il est lui-même une conscience simple et donc immuable, consciente de cela comme de son essence, mais de telle manière qu'elle n'est pas elle-même cette essence. La position qu'elle leur donne ne peut donc pas être une indifférence entre eux l'un envers l'autre, c'est-à-dire pas une indifférence de soi envers l'immuable ; mais il est directement lui-même l'un et l'autre, et pour lui c'est le rapport des deux comme rapport de l'essence au non-être, de sorte que ce dernier doit être aboli, mais comme les deux lui sont également essentiels et contradictoires, il est seulement le mouvement contradictoire dans lequel le contraire ne vient pas s'arrêter dans son contraire, mais seulement se recrée en lui comme contraire.</p> <p>Il y a donc un combat contre un ennemi contre lequel la victoire est plutôt une défaite, et en avoir remporté une est plutôt une perte dans son contraire. La conscience de la vie, de son existence et de ses actions, n'est que la douleur de cette existence et de ces actions, car en elle elle n'a que la conscience de son contraire comme essence et de son propre néant. Il s'agit d'une élévation de ceci à l'immuable. Mais cette élévation est elle-même cette conscience ; Elle est donc directement la conscience du contraire, c'est-à-dire de soi-même en tant qu'individu. L'immuable qui vient à la conscience est, pour cette raison même, simultanément touché par l'individu et seulement présent avec lui ; Au lieu de voir cela se détruire dans la conscience de l'immuable, cela ne fait toujours qu'émerger d'elle.</p> <p>Mais dans ce mouvement il éprouve cette émergence de l'individualité dans l' immuable , et de l'immuable dans l'individualité . Pour lui, il devient l'individualité en général dans l' être immuable, et en même temps son individualité en lui. Car la vérité de ce mouvement est précisément l' unité de cette double conscience. Mais pour lui , cette unité devient d'abord une unité dans laquelle la différence entre les deux reste le facteur dominant. Cela signifie qu'il existe une triple manière par laquelle l'individu est lié à l'immuable ; une fois qu'il réapparaît lui-même par opposition à l'être immuable ; et elle est renvoyée au début de la lutte, qui reste l'élément de toute la relation. Mais à d'autres moments , ce qui est immuable en soi a pour lui l' individualité ; de sorte qu'elle est la forme de l'immuable, à laquelle passe tout le mode d'existence. La troisième fois, il se retrouve comme cet individu dans l'immuable. La première chose immuable pour lui, c'est seulement l' être étranger qui condamne l'individu ; Troisièmement , puisque l' autre est une forme d' individualité comme lui, il devient esprit, a la joie de se retrouver en lui et prend conscience de se réconcilier avec son individualité avec l'universel.</p> <p>Ce qui se présente ici comme le mode et la relation de l'immuable apparaît comme l' expérience que la conscience de soi divisée fait de son malheur. Cette expérience n'est pas son mouvement unilatéral , car elle est elle-même une conscience immuable, mais en même temps une conscience individuelle, et le mouvement est aussi le mouvement de la conscience immuable, qui apparaît en elle tout autant que l'autre. ; car il traverse ces moments, d'abord étant immuable pour l'individu en général, puis l'individu s'opposant à l'autre individu, et enfin ne faisant qu'un avec lui. Mais cette considération, dans la mesure où elle nous appartient, est ici inopportune, car jusqu'ici nous n'avons vu l'immuabilité que comme l'immuabilité de la conscience, qui n'est donc pas la vraie, mais qui est encore lourde d'une contradiction, non de l'immuable dans et pour lui-même ; On ne sait donc pas comment cela va se comporter. Ce qui ressort ici, c'est simplement que ces déterminations indiquées de l'immuable apparaissent à la conscience, qui est ici notre objet.</p> <p>Pour cette raison, la conscience immuable, dans sa formation elle-même, conserve le caractère et la base d'être divisée et d'être pour elle-même par rapport à la conscience individuelle. C'est donc un événement général que l'immuable reçoive la forme de l'individualité ; de même qu'il se trouve seulement en face d'elle , et a donc cette relation à travers la nature ; Le fait qu'elle se retrouve finalement en lui lui paraît avoir été provoqué en partie par lui-même, ou parce qu'elle est elle-même individuelle ; mais une partie de cette unité comme appartenant à l'immuable, selon son origine et en tant qu'il est ; et l'opposition demeure dans cette unité elle-même. En effet, par la formation de l'immuable, le moment de l'au-delà est non seulement resté, mais s'est plutôt renforcé ; car si d'une part elle semble s'être rapprochée de lui à travers la forme de la réalité individuelle, d'autre part elle se présente désormais à lui comme une réalité opaque, sensorielle , avec toute la fragilité d'une réalité ; L'espoir de ne faire qu'un avec lui doit rester espoir, c'est-à-dire sans réalisation ni présence, car ce qui s'interpose entre lui et la réalisation est précisément la contingence absolue ou l'indifférence immuable qui réside dans la formation elle-même, base de l'espérance. De par la nature de l' existant , de par la réalité qui l'a attiré, il arrive nécessairement qu'il ait disparu dans le temps, et qu'il soit dans l'espace et lointain, et qu'il reste simplement lointain.</p> <p>Si au début le simple concept de conscience divisée était déterminé de telle manière qu'il visait à s'abolir en tant qu'individu et à devenir une conscience immuable, alors son effort a maintenant cette détermination qu'il abolit plutôt sa relation avec la conscience pure et informe . , immuable, et il n'y a que le rapport à l' immuable formé . Car l' unité de l'individu avec l'immuable est désormais son essence et son objet , tout comme dans le concept seul l'immuable abstrait et sans forme était l'objet essentiel ; et la relation de cette division absolue du concept est maintenant celle dont il doit se détourner. Mais le rapport initialement extérieur au formé, immuable comme réalité étrangère, doit l'élever à l'unité absolue.</p> <p>Le mouvement dans lequel la conscience non essentielle s'efforce d'atteindre cette unité est lui-même le triple , selon la triple relation qu'elle aura avec sa formation au-delà ; une fois comme pure conscience ; l'autre fois en tant qu'être individuel , qui se comporte comme un désir et s'oppose à la réalité ; et troisièmement, comme conscience de son être-pour-soi . – On voit maintenant comment ces trois modes d'être sont présents et déterminés dans cette relation générale.</p> <p>Donc d'abord, en le considérant comme pure conscience , l'immuable formé, en tant qu'il est pour la conscience pure, paraît posé tel qu'il est en et pour soi. Mais comme nous l'avons déjà rappelé, ce qu'il est en lui-même n'a pas encore vu le jour. Le fait qu'il soit dans la conscience tel qu'il est en lui-même devrait probablement venir de lui plutôt que de la conscience ; Mais sa présence ici n'est présente que d'un côté à travers la conscience, et pour cette raison même, elle n'est ni parfaite ni vraie, mais reste chargée d'imperfection ou de contradiction.</p> <p>Mais bien que la conscience malheureuse n'ait pas cette présence, elle est en même temps au-delà de la pensée pure, dans la mesure où celle-ci est la pensée abstraite du stoïcisme, qui détourne le regard de l' individu en général , et la seule pensée agitée du scepticisme - en fait seul l'individu en tant que Contradiction inconsciente et son mouvement incessant – existe ; Elle va au-delà de l'une et de l'autre, elle rapproche et maintient ensemble la pensée pure et l'individualité, mais n'a pas encore été élevée au niveau de pensée pour lequel l'individualité de la conscience se réconcilie avec la pensée pure elle-même. C'est plutôt dans ce milieu que la pensée abstraite touche l'individualité de la conscience en tant qu'individualité. C'est ce toucher lui-même ; c'est l'unité de la pensée pure et de l'individualité ; C'est aussi pour elle cette individualité pensante, ou pensée pure, et l'immuable lui-même est essentiel comme individualité. Mais ce n'est pas pour elle que cet objet, l'immuable, qui a essentiellement la forme de l'individualité, soit lui-même , lui-même, qui est l'individualité de la conscience.</p> <p>Par conséquent , de cette première manière, selon laquelle nous la considérons comme pure conscience , elle se rapporte à son objet, non pas à la pensée, mais en ce sens qu'elle est elle-même un pur individu pensant en soi et que son objet est précisément cela, mais pas la relation les uns avec les autres. est en soi une pure pensée, elle vise , pour ainsi dire, uniquement à penser et est une dévotion . Sa pensée comme telle reste le sifflement informe d'un tintement de cloches ou d'une brume chaude, une pensée musicale qui n'atteint pas le concept, qui serait le seul mode objectif immanent. Il sera l'objet de ce sentiment intérieur infini et pur ; mais il entre de telle manière qu'il n'entre pas comme quelqu'un qui a compris, et donc comme un étranger. Il en résulte le mouvement intérieur de l' esprit pur , qui se ressent , mais comme la division, douloureusement ; le mouvement d'un désir infini , qui a la certitude que son essence est un esprit si pur, une pensée pure , qui se pense en tant qu'individu ; qu'il est reconnu et reconnu par cet objet précisément parce qu'il se pense comme un individu. Mais en même temps, cet être est l'au -delà inaccessible , qui s'échappe lorsqu'on le saisit, ou plutôt qui s'est déjà échappé. Il s'est déjà échappé ; car d'une part, c'est la pensée immuable elle-même en tant qu'individu, et la conscience s'atteint donc directement en elle, elle-même , mais comme le contraire de l'immuable ; Au lieu de saisir l'être, il ne fait que ressentir et est retombé sur lui-même ; Puisqu'il ne peut s'empêcher de réaliser ceci, au lieu de cela, au lieu d'en avoir saisi l'essence, il n'en a saisi que l'insignifiance. Tout comme, d'une part, lorsqu'il s'efforce de se réaliser dans son essence, il ne saisit que sa propre réalité séparée, d'un autre côté, il ne peut saisir l'autre en tant qu'individu ou en tant que chose réelle . Partout où on le cherche, on ne le trouve pas, car il est censé exister un au-delà , un au-delà introuvable. Lorsqu'on le recherche en tant qu'individu, il ne s'agit pas d'une individualité générale et imaginée , ni d'un concept, mais plutôt d'un individu en tant qu'objet ou de quelque chose de réel. ; objet de certitude sensorielle immédiate ; et donc un seul qui a disparu. Seul le tombeau de sa vie peut donc devenir présent à la conscience . Mais parce que cela est en soi une réalité et qu'il est contre nature d'accorder une possession permanente ; Alors cette présence du tombeau n'est aussi que le combat d'un effort qui doit être perdu. Ce n'est que lorsqu'il aura constaté que la tombe de son être réel immuable n'a pas de réalité , que l' individu disparu en tant que disparu n'est pas l'individu véritable, qu'il renoncera à rechercher l'individu immuable comme réel ou à le conserver comme disparu, et seulement c'est ainsi qu'il est capable de trouver le particulier comme vrai ou comme général.</p> <p>Mais avant tout, le retour de l'esprit en lui-même doit être envisagé de telle manière qu'il ait une réalité en tant qu'individu . C'est l' esprit pur qui, pour nous ou en lui-même , s'est trouvé et se satisfait en lui-même, car même si l' essence se sépare d'elle-même dans ses sentiments, ce sentiment est lui-même un sentiment, il a l'objet de son propre sentiment pur. , et c'est lui-même ; Il en ressort donc comme un sentiment de soi ou quelque chose de réel qui existe pour lui-même. Dans ce retour en soi, sa seconde relation est devenue pour nous, celle du désir et du travail, qui donne à la conscience la certitude intérieure d'elle-même qu'elle a acquise pour nous en abolissant et en jouissant de l'être étranger, à savoir le même sous la forme de l'être étranger. indépendant Choses prouvées. Mais la conscience malheureuse ne se trouve que désirer et travailler ; Il ne lui est pas possible de se retrouver de cette manière, sur la base de sa certitude intérieure, et son sentiment d'être est ce sentiment de soi. Puisqu'il ne l'a pas pour lui , son être intérieur reste encore la certitude brisée de lui-même ; L'épreuve qu'il subirait par le travail et le plaisir est donc tout aussi brisée ; ou plutôt il lui faut détruire cette preuve pour lui-même, afin qu'il y trouve la preuve, mais seulement la preuve, de ce qu'il est pour lui-même, à savoir sa division.</p> <p>La réalité contre laquelle se tournent le désir et le travail n'est plus quelque chose qui est en soi vide à cette conscience , quelque chose qui ne peut être qu'aboli et consommé par elle, mais plutôt quelque chose comme elle est elle-même, une réalité brisée en deux , qui n'est qu'une chose. , d'une part, en soi vide, mais d'autre part c'est aussi un monde sacré ; C'est la forme de l'immuable, parce qu'elle a conservé l'individualité en soi, et parce qu'en tant qu'immuable elle est universelle, son individualité a le sens de toute réalité.</p> <p>Si la conscience était une conscience indépendante pour elle-même et que la réalité en elle-même était vide pour elle, elle parviendrait au sentiment de son indépendance dans le travail et la jouissance, car elle serait elle-même celle qui abolit la réalité. Justement parce que telle est la forme de l'immuable, elle n'est pas capable de l'abolir par elle-même. Bien au contraire, alors qu'il parvient à l'anéantissement de la réalité et de la jouissance, cela se produit essentiellement pour lui par le fait que l'immuable lui-même abandonne sa forme et s'en remet à lui pour la jouissance . – La conscience, quant à elle, apparaît ici aussi comme quelque chose de réel, mais aussi comme intérieurement brisé, et cette division se présente dans son travail et sa jouissance, en rapport au réel ou être-pour-soi et en être - en- soi à casser. Ce rapport à la réalité est le changement ou le faire , l'être-pour-soi, qui appartient à la conscience individuelle en tant que telle. Mais c'est aussi en soi ; ce côté appartient à l'immuable au-delà ; ce sont les capacités et les pouvoirs, don étranger, qui laisse l'immuable à la conscience pour l'utiliser.</p> <p>Dans ses actions, la conscience est d'abord dans le rapport entre deux extrêmes ; Il se trouve d'un côté en tant que ce monde actif et en face de la réalité passive, tous deux en relation l'un avec l'autre, mais aussi tous deux revenus à l'immuable et s'accrochant à eux-mêmes. Des deux côtés donc, une seule surface se sépare de l'autre, qui entre dans le jeu du mouvement contre l'autre. – L'extrême de la réalité est annulé par l'extrême actif ; mais elle ne peut être abolie de sa part que parce que sa nature immuable s'abolit, se repousse d'elle-même et abandonne à l'activité ce qui a été repoussé. La force active apparaît comme la puissance dans laquelle la réalité se dissout ; Mais pour cette conscience, pour qui l' en-soi ou l'essence est autre chose qu'elle-même, cette puissance telle qu'elle apparaît dans l'activité est l'au-delà d'elle-même, au lieu de revenir de son action en elle-même, et à elle-même après s'être prouvée. , il reflète plutôt ce mouvement de retour de l'action vers l'autre extrême, qui est ici représenté comme une chose purement générale, comme le pouvoir absolu d'où émanait le mouvement dans toutes les directions, et qui est l'essence à la fois des extrêmes en décomposition et de son premier s'est produit que le changement lui-même.</p> <p>Que la conscience immuable renonce à sa forme et l'abandonne , tandis que la conscience individuelle rend grâce , c'est-à-dire que la satisfaction de la conscience de son indépendance se nie et assigne l'essence de l'action d'elle-même à l'au-delà, à travers ces deux moments d' autosuffisance mutuelle Cependant, en abandonnant les deux parties, cela crée une unité de conscience avec l'immuable. Mais en même temps cette unité est affectée par la séparation, à nouveau brisée, et l'opposition entre le général et l'individu en émerge à nouveau. Car la conscience renonce à apparaître pour satisfaire son propre sentiment ; mais en obtient la réelle satisfaction ; car c'était désir, travail et plaisir ; en tant que conscience, il a voulu, fait et apprécié . De même, sa gratitude , dans laquelle elle reconnaît l'autre extrême comme l'essence et s'annule, est elle-même sa propre action, qui l'emporte sur l'action de l'autre extrême et s'oppose par une action égale à la bonne action qui se révèle ; Mais quand le premier lui laisse sa surface , il rend aussi grâce , et en renonçant à son action, c'est-à-dire à son essence , il fait en réalité plus que l'autre, qui ne fait que rejeter d'elle-même une surface. L'ensemble du mouvement se reflète non seulement dans le désir, le travail et le plaisir réels, mais même dans la gratitude, dans laquelle le contraire semble se produire, à l' extrême de l'individualité . La conscience se sent comme cet individu et ne se laisse pas tromper par l'apparence de son renoncement, car la vérité est qu'elle ne s'est pas abandonnée ; Ce qui s'est produit n'est qu'une double réflexion entre les deux extrêmes, et le résultat est la division répétée en la conscience opposée de l' immuable et en la conscience opposée de la volonté, de l'accomplissement, de la jouissance et du renoncement à soi-même ou à l' individu. qui existe pour soi en général.</p> <p>Ainsi s'est produite la troisième relation du mouvement de cette conscience , qui émerge de la seconde comme celle qui s'est en vérité révélée indépendante par sa volonté et son accomplissement. À première vue, il s'agissait uniquement du concept de conscience réelle, ou de l' esprit intérieur , qui n'est pas encore réel dans l'action et le plaisir ; la seconde est cette réalisation, en tant que faire et jouir extérieurs ; mais en revenant de là, c'est une conscience qui s'éprouve elle-même comme une conscience réelle et active , ou qu'il est vrai d'être en elle-même et pour elle-même . Mais l'ennemi se retrouve désormais sous sa propre forme. Dans la bataille de l'esprit, la conscience individuelle n'existe que comme un moment musical et abstrait ; Dans le travail et le plaisir, en tant que réalisation de cet être insubstantiel, il peut immédiatement s'oublier , et l' individualité consciente dans cette réalité est écrasée par une reconnaissance reconnaissante. Mais cette défaite est en réalité un retour de la conscience en elle-même, c'est-à-dire en elle-même comme réalité qui lui est fidèle.</p> <p>Ce troisième rapport, dans lequel cette vraie réalité est l' unique extrême, est le rapport de celle-ci à l'essence générale, comme au néant ; et l'évolution de cette relation reste à considérer.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne le rapport opposé de la conscience, dans lequel sa réalité n'est immédiatement rien , alors son action réelle devient une action de rien, sa jouissance le sentiment de son malheur. Par là, l'action et la jouissance perdent tout contenu et sens généraux , car cela leur donnerait un être en et pour soi, et toutes deux se replient dans l'individualité vers laquelle est dirigée la conscience de les abolir. La conscience est consciente d'elle-même en tant que véritable individu dans les fonctions animales. Celles-ci, au lieu d'être faites de manière impartiale, comme quelque chose qui est en soi vide et ne peut acquérir aucune importance ou essence pour l'esprit, puisque ce sont celles dans lesquelles l'ennemi se montre sous sa forme particulière, elles font plutôt l'objet de graves critiques. effort, et deviennent les plus importants. Mais à mesure que cet ennemi se crée dans sa défaite, la conscience, en se fixant sur lui, au lieu de s'en libérer, s'attarde toujours sur lui et se voit toujours contaminée, en même temps ce contenu de son effort, au lieu de quelque chose d'essentiel. , le plus bas, au lieu d'un. En général, c'est la chose la plus individuelle, on ne voit donc qu'une personnalité limitée à elle-même et à ses petites actions, et maussade, aussi malheureuse que pauvre.</p> <p>Mais tous deux, le sentiment de son malheur et la pauvreté de ses actions, sont aussi liés à la conscience de son unité avec l'immuable. Car la tentative d'anéantissement immédiat de son être réel est médiatisée par la pensée de l'immuable et se produit dans cette relation . La relation indirecte constitue l'essence du mouvement négatif dans lequel elle s'adresse à son individualité, mais qui est aussi positive comme relation en soi et produira pour elle-même son unité .</p> <p>Ce rapport indirect est ici une conclusion dans laquelle l'individu, qui se fixe d'abord par opposition à l' en-soi, n'est rejoint à cet autre extrême que par un troisième. Par ce milieu se trouve l'extrême de la conscience immuable pour la conscience non essentielle, dans laquelle en même temps cela signifie qu'elle est aussi pour l'autre seulement par ce milieu, et ce milieu est celui qui présente les deux extrêmes l'un à l'autre et est le serviteur mutuel de l'un, chacun est l'un avec l'autre. Ce centre est lui-même un être conscient, car c'est une activité qui médiatise la conscience en tant que telle ; Le contenu de cette action est la destruction que la conscience opère avec son individualité.</p> <p>En lui, celui-ci se libère donc du faire et du jouir comme siens ; Il repousse l'essence de sa volonté hors de lui-même comme un extrême qui existe pour lui-même et rejette l'individualité et la liberté de décision, et donc la culpabilité de ses actions, sur le milieu ou le serviteur. Ce médiateur, comme en relation directe avec l'être immuable, donne ses conseils sur ce qui est juste. L'action, en tant qu'observance de la décision d'autrui, cesse d'être la sienne du point de vue du faire ou de la volonté . Mais il reste encore son côté objectif à la conscience non essentielle, à savoir le fruit de son travail et de sa jouissance . Alors il rejette cela aussi d'elle-même, et renonce, ainsi qu'à sa volonté, à sa réalité préservée dans le travail et la jouissance ; sur lui, en partie comme sur la vérité acquise de son indépendance consciente - en se déplaçant, en imaginant et en disant quelque chose de complètement étranger et dénué de sens pour lui ; en partie comme propriété extérieure - en renonçant à une partie de la propriété acquise par le travail ; en partie à cause du plaisir qu'il en a eu - en le refusant complètement à lui-même dans le jeûne et le châtiment.</p> <p>A travers ces moments d'abandon de sa propre décision, puis de propriété et de jouissance, et enfin le moment positif de faire une affaire incomprise, on enlève véritablement et complètement la conscience de la liberté intérieure et extérieure, de la réalité comme son être pour soi. ; Il a la certitude qu'il s'est véritablement dépouillé de son ego et a fait de sa conscience de soi immédiate une chose , un être objectif. – Elle ne pouvait prouver son renoncement qu'à travers ce sacrifice réel ; car ce n'est qu'en lui que disparaît la tromperie qui réside dans la reconnaissance intérieure de la gratitude par le cœur, l'esprit et la bouche, une reconnaissance qui repousse en effet toute la puissance de l'être pour soi et l'attribue à un don d'en haut, mais en Dans ce processus de dépouillement, l' individualité externe se reflète dans la possession à laquelle elle ne renonce pas, mais l' individualité interne est dans la conscience de la décision qu'elle a prise elle-même, et dans celle-ci. Conscience du contenu déterminé par lui, qu'il n'a pas échangé contre un contenu étranger qui le remplit sans signification.</p> <p>Mais dans le sacrifice véritablement accompli , de même que la conscience a aboli l' action comme sienne, elle a aussi abandonné son malheur . Le fait que ce lâcher prise en soi est pourtant une action de l'autre extrême de la conclusion, qui est l' essence qui existe en soi . Mais en même temps, ce sacrifice de l'extrême non essentiel n'était pas une action unilatérale, mais contenait en lui les actions de l'autre. Car l'abandon de sa propre volonté n'est que d'une part négatif, en termes de concept ou en soi , mais en même temps positif, à savoir le fait de poser la volonté comme celle d'autrui , et détermine la volonté comme non individuelle, mais universel. Pour cette conscience, ce sens positif de la volonté individuelle posée négativement est la volonté de l'autre extrême, qui, parce qu'elle est autre chose pour elle, ne lui vient pas par elle-même, mais par le troisième, le médiateur comme conseil. Donc, pour lui, sa volonté devient la volonté générale qui existe en soi , mais elle n'est pas elle-même cela en soi ; Pour lui, l'abandon de soi en tant qu'individu n'est pas, en théorie, le positif de la volonté générale. De même, son abandon de la possession et de la jouissance n'a que la même signification négative, et l'universel que cela devient pour lui n'est pas de sa faute . Cette unité de l'objectif et de l'être pour soi, qui est dans le concept de faire, et qui devient donc conscience comme essence et objet - de même qu'elle n'est pas pour lui le concept de son faire, de même elle n'est pas non plus pour lui, qu'il est pour lui un objet , directement et par lui-même, mais il permet au serviteur médiateur d'exprimer cette certitude, encore brisée, que ce n'est qu'en soi que son malheur était mauvais, à savoir se satisfaire de lui-même dans ses actions. Faire ou jouir bienheureux ; Sa mauvaise action est aussi mauvaise en soi , à savoir l'action absolue, selon laquelle l'action n'est qu'une action en général comme l'action de l'individu. Mais pour lui, l'action et son action réelle restent pauvres, et sa jouissance reste la douleur, et la suppression de celle-ci dans le sens positif est un au-delà . Mais dans cet objet, dans lequel son faire et son être sont pour lui comme cette conscience individuelle , être et faire en soi , il a l'idée de raison.devenir, la certitude de la conscience, dans son individualité, d'être absolue en elle-même , ou dans toute réalité.</p> <p>V<br class='autobr' /> Certitude et vérité de la raison</p> <p>La conscience se replie sur elle-même dans la pensée qu'elle a compris que la conscience individuelle est en elle-même un être absolu. Pour la conscience malheureuse, l'être en soi est l' au-delà de soi, mais son mouvement a accompli cela sur elle, l'individu dans son développement complet, ou l'individu, qui est la conscience réelle , comme le négatif de soi, c'est-à-dire comme cela. avoir fixé des extrêmes objectifs , ou avoir lutté contre son être-pour-soi pour en faire un être ; En cela, il est aussi devenu son unité avec cet universel, qui pour nous, puisque l'individu aboli est l'universel, n'en sort plus ; et puisque la conscience se maintient dans cette négativité, son essence réside en elle comme telle. Sa vérité est celle qui apparaît dans la conclusion où les extrêmes apparaissent absolument séparés, comme le milieu, qui exprime à la conscience immuable que l'individu a renoncé à lui-même, et à l'individu que l'immuable n'est plus pour lui un extrême, mais est réconcilié avec lui. Ce centre est l'unité qui connaît et se rapporte directement aux deux, ainsi qu'à la conscience de son unité, qu'il exprime à la conscience et donc à elle-même , la certitude d'être toute vérité.</p> <p>Parce que la conscience de soi est raison, sa relation jusqu'ici négative à l'altérité se transforme en relation positive. Jusqu'à présent, il ne s'est préoccupé que de son indépendance et de sa liberté, afin de se sauver et de se préserver aux dépens du monde ou de sa propre réalité, qui lui apparaissaient toutes deux comme le négatif de son être. Mais comme la raison, assurée d'elle-même, elle a reçu la paix contre eux et peut les supporter ; car il est certain de lui-même en tant que réalité ; ou que toute réalité n'est rien d'autre qu'elle ; sa pensée est elle-même immédiatement réalité ; il s'y rapporte donc comme idéalisme. C'est pour lui qu'il se perçoit comme si le monde lui convenait seulement maintenant ; avant cela, il ne les comprend pas ; il les désire et les manipule ; s'en retire en soi et le détruit pour lui-même et pour lui-même comme conscience, comme conscience de lui comme essence, ainsi que comme conscience de son néant. C'est seulement ainsi, après que le tombeau de sa vérité a été perdu, que l'anéantissement de sa réalité elle-même a été détruite et que l'individualité de la conscience est en elle-même une essence absolue pour elle, qu'elle la découvre comme son nouveau monde réel, qui, en restant, il y a intérêt, comme auparavant seulement à leur disparition ; car leur existence devient pour lui sa propre vérité et sa présence ; il est certain qu'il suffit de s'y expérimenter.</p> <p>La raison est la certitude de la conscience que toute réalité est : c'est ainsi que l'idéalisme exprime son concept. De même que la conscience, qui apparaît comme raison, a en elle cette certitude, l'idéalisme l' exprime aussi directement : je suis moi, dans le sens où je, qui est mon objet, n'est pas le même que dans la conscience de soi en général, ni comment dans la libre conscience de soi, il n'y a qu'un objet vide en général, ici seulement un objet qui se retire des autres qui comptent encore à ses côtés , mais un objet avec la conscience de la non-existence de tout autre, le seul objet, toute réalité. et le présent est. Mais la conscience de soi n'est pas seulement la réalité en elle-même , mais aussi en elle-même , uniquement par le fait qu'elle devient cette réalité , ou plutôt se révèle telle . Cela se manifeste dans la manière dont d'abord dans le mouvement dialectique de penser, de percevoir et de comprendre l'altérité comme en soi , puis dans le mouvement à travers l'indépendance de la conscience dans la domination et la servitude, à travers la pensée de la liberté, la libération sceptique et la lutte pour la libération absolue de la conscience divisée, l'altérité, dans la mesure où elle n'est que pour elle , disparaît pour elle-même . Deux faces apparaissaient l'une après l'autre, l'une dans laquelle l'essence ou la vérité avait la détermination d' être pour la conscience , l'autre dans laquelle elle n'existait que pour la conscience . Mais tous deux se réduisaient à une vérité : ce qui est , ou ce qui est en soi , n'est que dans la mesure où il est pour la conscience, et ce qui est pour elle est aussi en soi . La conscience, qui est cette vérité, a ce chemin derrière elle et l'a oublié, apparaissant directement comme raison, ou cette raison qui apparaît immédiatement n'apparaît que comme la certitude de cette vérité. De cette façon, il assure seulement que toute réalité existe, mais il ne le comprend pas lui-même ; car ce chemin oublié est la compréhension de cette affirmation directement exprimée. Et de la même manière, cette affirmation, lorsqu'il l'entend sous cette forme pure - parce qu'il la fait probablement lui-même sous une forme concrète - est incompréhensible pour celui qui ne l'a pas faite.</p> <p>L'idéalisme, qui ne représente pas ce chemin mais commence par cette affirmation, est donc aussi une pure assurance , qui ne se comprend ni ne peut se faire comprendre aux autres. Il exprime une certitude immédiate , qui est contrée par d'autres certitudes immédiates qui se sont perdues sur ce seul chemin. Par conséquent, outre l' assurance de cette certitude, les assurances de ces autres certitudes ont également des droits égaux . La raison fait appel à la conscience de soi de chaque conscience : je suis moi ; mon objet et mon essence, c'est moi ; et personne ne lui refusera cette vérité. Mais en se basant sur cet appel, il consacre la vérité de l'autre certitude, à savoir : c'est différent pour moi ; Quelque chose d'autre que moi est pour moi un objet et une essence, ou parce que je suis un objet et une essence pour moi-même, je ne le suis que lorsque je me retire de l'autre en général et que je me tiens à ses côtés comme une réalité. – Ce n'est que lorsque la raison apparaît comme le reflet de cette certitude opposée que son affirmation d'elle-même apparaît non seulement comme certitude et assurance, mais comme vérité ; et non pas aux côtés des autres, mais comme le seul . L' occurrence immédiate est l'abstraction de son existence , dont l'essence et l'en-soi est le concept absolu, c'est-à-dire le mouvement de son devenir . – La conscience déterminera sa relation à l'altérité ou à son objet de différentes manières, selon le niveau de l'esprit du monde qui devient conscient. La façon dont il se trouve et se détermine immédiatement et à chaque fois son objet , ou ce qu'il est pour lui-même , dépend de ce qu'il est déjà devenu ou de ce qu'il est déjà en lui-même .</p> <p>La raison est la certitude d'être toute la réalité . Mais cet en-soi ou cette réalité est encore tout à fait général, la pure abstraction de la réalité. C'est la première positivité , qui est conscience de soi en soi, pour soi , et je ne suis donc que la pure essence des êtres, ou la simple catégorie . La catégorie , qui autrement avait le sens d'être l'essence des êtres, indéterminée des êtres en général ou des êtres par rapport à la conscience, n'est plus l'essence ou simple unité des êtres que comme réalité pensante ; ou bien c'est que la conscience de soi et l'être sont la même essence ; la même chose, non pas en comparaison, mais en soi. Seul un mauvais idéalisme unilatéral permet à cette unité de réapparaître comme conscience d'un côté et d'apparaître en opposition avec elle . –Mais cette catégorie ou simple unité de la conscience de soi et de l'être a la différence en elle-même ; car son essence est précisément d'être directement égal à soi en étant différent ou en différence absolue. La différence est donc : mais complètement transparent, et comme une différence qui en même temps n'est pas une différence. Il apparaît comme une multitude de catégories. En ce sens que l'idéalisme exprime la simple unité de la conscience de soi comme toute réalité, et en fait directement une essence , sans l'avoir compris comme un être absolument négatif - seul celui-ci a en soi la négation, la détermination ou la différence - il en est ainsi. Plus incompréhensible encore que la première est cette seconde, celle de la catégorie des différences ou des espèces . Cette assurance en général, ainsi que l'assurance d'un nombre déterminé de ses espèces, est une nouvelle assurance, ce qui signifie en soi qu'il n'est plus nécessaire de l'accepter comme assurance. Parce que la différence commence dans l'ego pur, dans la compréhension pure elle-même, cela signifie que l'immédiateté , l'assurance et la découverte sont abandonnées ici et que la compréhension commence. Mais reprendre la multitude des catégories d'une manière ou d'une autre comme une découverte, par exemple à partir des jugements, et les supporter de cette manière, c'est en réalité être considéré comme une honte pour la science ; Comment l'entendement pourrait-il démontrer une nécessité s'il ne peut le faire en lui-même, la pure nécessité ?</p> <p>Puisque l'essence pure des choses, ainsi que leur différence, appartiennent à la raison, on ne pourrait en réalité plus parler de choses du tout , c'est-à-dire de choses qui, pour la conscience, ne seraient que le négatif d'elles-mêmes. Car les catégories multiples sont des espèces de la catégorie pure, ce qui signifie qu'elle en est encore le genre ou l'essence , et non leur opposition. Mais ils sont déjà l'ambiguïté, qui a en même temps la diversité d'être différente de la catégorie pure . Par cette multiplicité, ils la contredisent en réalité, et l'unité pure doit en elle-même l'annuler, se constituant ainsi comme unité négative des différences. Mais en tant qu'unité négative , elle exclut les différences en tant que telles, ainsi que cette première unité pure immédiate en tant que telle, et elle est l'individualité ; une nouvelle catégorie, qui est la conscience d'exclusion, c'est-à-dire qu'un Autre est pour elle. L'individu est son passage de son concept à une réalité extérieure ; le schéma pur , qui est tout autant conscience qu'individualité et exclusif, pointant vers autre chose. Mais ces autres choses dans cette catégorie ne sont que les autres premières catégories , à savoir la pure essence et la pure différence ; et en lui, c'est-à-dire dans la position de l'autre, ou dans cet autre lui-même, la conscience est aussi elle-même. Chacun de ces différents moments en désigne un autre ; mais en même temps il n'y a pas d'altérité en eux. La catégorie pure fait référence aux espèces qui passent dans la catégorie négative, ou particularité ; mais la seconde renvoie à la première ; C'est elle-même la conscience pure, qui demeure en chaque soi cette claire unité avec elle-même, mais une unité qui est aussi dirigée vers quelque chose d'autre, qui, en même temps qu'elle existe, a disparu, et en même temps qu'elle a disparu, elle a aussi été recréée.</p> <p>Nous voyons ici la conscience pure posée d'une double manière, d'abord comme le va-et-vient incessant , qui traverse tous ses instants, où l'altérité flotte devant nous, qui s'élimine dans l'appréhension ; d'autres fois plutôt que l' unité sereine certaine de sa vérité . Pour cette unité ce mouvement est l' autre ; mais pour ce mouvement il y a cette unité calme ; et la conscience et l'objet alternent dans ces déterminations mutuelles. La conscience est donc un va-et-vient de recherche, et son objet est le pur en soi et l'essence ; à d'autres moments, c'est la catégorie simple, et l'objet est le mouvement des différences. Mais la conscience en tant qu'être est tout ce processus lui-même, passant d'elle-même comme simple catégorie à l'individu et à l'objet, et regardant ce processus dans ce processus, l'abolissant comme un autre, se l' appropriant , et s'appropriant elle-même comme cette certitude, toute réalité, à la fois pour l'exprimer elle-même comme son objet.</p> <p>Sa première déclaration n'est que ce mot vide et abstrait selon lequel tout lui appartient . Car la certitude d'être toute réalité n'est que la pure catégorie. Cette première raison, qui se reconnaît dans l'objet, s'exprime par un idéalisme vide, qui ne conçoit la raison que telle qu'elle est initialement, et dans le fait qu'elle montre cette pure mine de conscience dans tout être et exprime les choses comme des sensations ou des idées semble ont été présentés comme une réalité complète. Ce doit donc être en même temps un empirisme absolu, car pour l' accomplissement de la mine vide , c'est-à-dire pour la différence et tout son développement et sa formation, sa raison a besoin d'une impulsion extérieure, dans laquelle réside la diversité du sentiment ou de l'imagination. . Cet idéalisme devient donc une ambiguïté tout aussi contradictoire que le scepticisme, seulement que l'un s'exprime négativement, l'autre exprime positivement, mais aussi peu ses pensées contradictoires de conscience pure que toute réalité, et également d'impulsion étrangère ou de sentiment sensuel. et l'imagination, comme de la même réalité, mais au contraire se jette encore et encore de l'un à l'autre et est entrée dans le mauvais, à savoir dans l'infini sensoriel. Puisque la raison est toute réalité au sens de la mienne abstraite , et que l' autre lui est un étranger indifférent , la connaissance de la raison d'autrui est posée en elle, qui apparaît comme mienne, la perception et l' entendement qui comprend ce qui est signifié et perçu . En même temps, une telle connaissance n'est pas une vraie connaissance, affirmée par le concept même de cet idéalisme, car seule l'unité de l'aperception est la vérité de la connaissance. La raison pure de cet idéalisme est donc renvoyée par elle-même vers le savoir qui n'est pas un savoir pour parvenir à cet autre qui lui est essentiel , c'est-à-dire l' en-soi , mais qu'elle n'a pas en soi. de vérité ; De cette façon, elle se condamne avec connaissance et volonté à une connaissance fausse et ne peut renoncer à penser et à percevoir, qui n'ont pas de vérité pour elle-même. Il est en contradiction directe d'affirmer un dédoublement absolument opposé comme l'essence, l' unité de l'aperception et aussi la chose , qui, même s'il s'agit d'un élan étranger , ou d'une essence empirique , ou d' une sensualité , ou d'une chose en soiest appelé, dans son concept la même chose reste étrangère à cette unité.</p> <p>Cet idéalisme est dans cette contradiction parce qu'il affirme le concept abstrait de la raison comme la vérité ; c'est pourquoi la réalité surgit immédiatement autant que la réalité, qui n'est plutôt pas la réalité de la raison, alors que la raison devrait en même temps être toute réalité ; Cela reste une recherche agitée, qui, dans la recherche elle-même, déclare la satisfaction de trouver absolument impossible. – Mais la vraie raison n'est pas si incohérente ; mais seulement la certitude d'être toute réalité, dans ce concept il est conscient de lui-même comme une certitude , qu'en tant que Je, il n'est pas encore la réalité en vérité, et est poussé à élever sa certitude au rang de vérité et à accomplir la mienne vide .</p> <p>Une<br class='autobr' /> raison observationnelle</p> <p>Nous voyons maintenant cette conscience, dans laquelle être a le sens d' être , entrer à nouveau dans la pensée et la perception, mais non pas comme dans la certitude d' un autre , mais avec la certitude d'être cet autre lui-même. Auparavant, il lui était seulement possible de percevoir et d'expérimenter certaines choses ; ici, il représente les observations et l'expérience elle-même. L'opinion et la perception, qui étaient auparavant suspendues pour nous, sont maintenant suspendues par la conscience pour elles-mêmes ; la raison vise à connaître la vérité ; trouver comme concept ce qui est une chose à penser et à percevoir, c'est-à-dire n'avoir dans la chosité que la conscience d'elle-même. La raison a donc désormais un intérêt général dans le monde car elle est la certitude d'y être présente ou que le présent est rationnel. Il cherche son autre, sachant qu'il n'a rien d'autre que lui-même ; il ne cherche que son propre infini.</p> <p>Ne se soupçonnant d'abord que dans la réalité, ou ne la connaissant que comme sienne , elle passe en ce sens à la possession générale de la propriété qui lui est assurée, et plante le signe de sa souveraineté sur toutes les hauteurs et dans toutes les profondeurs. Mais cette mine superficielle n'est pas leur intérêt ultime ; La joie de cette possession générale se trouve dans sa propriété par l'autre étranger que la raison abstraite n'a pas en elle-même. La raison se perçoit comme un être plus profond, parce que le Je pur est et doit exiger que la différence, l' être diversifié lui devienne comme le sien, qu'elle se perçoive comme réalité et se trouve présente comme forme et chose. Mais si la raison fouille dans tous les entrailles des choses et ouvre toutes leurs veines pour en sortir, alors elle n'atteindra pas ce bonheur, mais doit d'abord s'être perfectionnée pour pouvoir ensuite en éprouver la perfection.</p> <p>La conscience observe ; Autrement dit, la raison veut se trouver et se posséder comme un objet existant, comme une manière réelle et sensuellement présente . La conscience de cette observation veut dire et dit qu'elle ne veut pas éprouver elle-même , mais au contraire l'essence des choses en tant que choses . Si cette conscience veut dire et dit cela, c'est parce qu'elle est la raison , mais la raison en tant que telle n'est pas encore pour elle un objet. Si la raison savait qu'elle est la même essence des choses et d'elle-même, et qu'elle ne peut être présente dans la conscience que sous sa forme propre, elle descendrait plutôt dans sa propre profondeur et la chercherait là-dedans que dans les choses. S'il l'avait trouvé là-dedans, il serait alors renvoyé à la réalité pour en regarder l'expression sensuelle, mais il la prendrait immédiatement essentiellement comme un concept . La raison, telle qu'elle apparaît directement comme la certitude de la conscience d'être toute réalité, prend sa réalité dans le sens de l' immédiateté de l'être , et aussi l'unité du moi avec cet être objectif dans le sens d'une unité immédiate dans laquelle elle est la moments d'être et je n'ai pas encore été séparés et réunis, ou qu'elle n'a pas encore reconnu. Elle aborde donc les choses comme une conscience observatrice, estimant qu'elle les perçoit véritablement comme des choses sensuelles, opposées à l'ego ; mais leurs actions réelles contredisent cette opinion ; car il reconnaît les choses, il transforme leur sensualité en concepts , c'est-à-dire en un être qui est en même temps moi, pensant ainsi en une pensée existante, ou l'être en un être pensé, et affirme en fait que les choses n'ont de vérité que comme notions. Pour cette conscience observatrice, cela devient seulement ce que sont les choses , mais pour nous ce qu'elles sont elles-mêmes ; Mais le résultat de son mouvement sera de devenir pour lui-même ce qu'il est en soi.</p> <p>L'action de la raison observatrice doit être considérée dans les moments de son mouvement, car elle prend en compte la nature, l'esprit et enfin la relation entre les deux en tant qu'être sensuel et se cherche elle-même comme réalité vivante.</p> <p> V<br class='autobr' /> Certitude et vérité de la raison</p> <p>Une raison observationnelle</p> <p>Une Observation de la nature</p> <p>Lorsque la conscience irréfléchie déclare l'observation et l'expérience comme la source de la vérité, ses paroles peuvent sembler comme s'il s'agissait uniquement de goûter, de sentir, de sentir, d'entendre et de voir ; Dans le zèle avec lequel il recommande de goûter, de sentir, etc., il oublie de dire qu'il a en fait déjà déterminé l'objet de ce sentiment tout aussi essentiellement, et que cette détermination lui est au moins aussi importante que ce sentiment. Il admettra aussi immédiatement qu'il ne se préoccupe pas seulement de la perception et, par exemple, n'acceptera pas la perception que ce canif se trouve à côté de cette tabatière comme une observation. Ce qui est perçu doit au moins avoir une signification générale et non sensorielle .</p> <p>Ce général n'est que ce qui reste le même ; son mouvement n'est que la répétition uniforme de la même action. La conscience, qui ne trouve dans l'objet que l'universalité ou le sens abstrait , doit prendre sur elle le mouvement réel de l'objet ; Puisqu'il n'est pas encore son esprit, c'est du moins sa mémoire, qui exprime d'une manière générale ce qui n'est présent dans la réalité que d'une manière particulière. Cet éloignement superficiel de l'individuel, et cette forme également superficielle de l'universalité, où le sensible ne fait qu'être absorbé sans être devenu universel en soi, la description des choses n'a pas de mouvement dans l'objet lui-même ; Au contraire, ce n'est que dans la description. Le sujet tel que décrit a donc perdu tout intérêt ; Si l'une est décrite, il faut en entreprendre une autre et toujours la chercher, pour que la description ne s'épuise pas. S'il n'est plus si facile de trouver de nouvelles choses entières , il faut alors revenir à celles déjà trouvées, les diviser davantage, les démonter et y découvrir de nouveaux aspects de la chose. Cet instinct agité et agité ne peut jamais manquer de matière ; Trouver une nouvelle espèce distinguée, voire une nouvelle planète, qui, bien qu'individuelle, ait le caractère d'un universel, ne peut être réalisé que par les plus chanceux. Mais les limites de ce qui se distingue comme l'éléphant, le chêne, l'or , ce qui est genre et espèce , passe par de nombreuses étapes jusqu'à la spécialisation infinie des animaux et des plantes chaotiques, des espèces de montagne ou des métaux qui ne peuvent être que représentés. par la force et l'art, la Terre, etc. Dans ce domaine d'indétermination du général, où la particularité se rapproche à nouveau de l'isolement et y descend ici et là complètement, s'ouvre une réserve inépuisable d'observation et de description. Mais ici, où s'ouvre à lui un champ indubitable, à la limite de l'universel, au lieu d'une richesse incommensurable, il ne peut avoir trouvé que les limites de la nature et de ses propres actions ; Il ne peut plus savoir si ce qui semble être en soi n'est pas un accident ; Ce qui porte la marque d'une structure confuse ou immature, faible, à peine en train de se développer en raison d'une indétermination élémentaire, ne peut même pas prétendre être décrit.</p> <p>Si cette recherche et cette description semblent porter uniquement sur des choses, alors nous ne voyons pas qu'elles se poursuivent par la perception sensorielle , mais plutôt ce par quoi les choses sont reconnues est plus important pour lui que le reste des propriétés sensorielles que la chose elle-même ne peut pas. se passer, mais dont la conscience se passe. Par cette distinction entre l' essentiel et le non essentiel, le concept s'élève au-dessus de la distraction sensuelle, et la cognition explique qu'il est au moins aussi essentiel à lui-même qu'à l'action. Avec cette double essentialité, il devient incertain si ce qui est essentiel et nécessaire à la cognition l'est aussi dans les choses . D'une part, les caractéristiques sont uniquement destinées à servir de moyen de reconnaissance des choses, donc de les distinguer les unes des autres ; Mais d'autre part, ce n'est pas le caractère inessentiel des choses qui est reconnu, mais plutôt ce par quoi elles rompent avec la continuité générale de l'être en général, se séparent des autres et sont pour elles-mêmes . Les caractéristiques ne doivent pas seulement avoir un rapport essentiel avec la connaissance, mais aussi avec les déterminations essentielles des choses, et le système artificiel doit correspondre au système de la nature elle-même et ne faire que l'exprimer. Cela est nécessaire du point de vue du concept de raison, et l'instinct de la raison - car il ne se comporte comme tel que dans cette observation - a également réalisé cette unité dans ses systèmes, où ses objets eux-mêmes sont tels qu'ils ont une essentialité ou un pour-avoir. soi-même en eux, et ne sont pas seulement un accident de ce moment ou de ceci ici . Les traits distinctifs des animaux, par exemple, proviennent de leurs griffes et de leurs dents ; car en fait, ce n'est pas seulement la connaissance qui distingue un animal d'un autre ; mais l'animal s'excréte ainsi ; grâce à ces armes, il se maintient pour lui-même et séparé du général. La plante, en revanche, ne vient pas à être pour elle-même , mais touche seulement la limite de l'individualité ; À cette frontière, où elle apparaît comme une division en genres, elle a donc été acceptée et différenciée. Mais ce qui est plus bas ne peut plus se distinguer d'autre chose, mais se perd en entrant en opposition. Être au repos et être proportionnéentre en conflit les uns avec les autres, la chose est un peu différente chez celui-ci que chez celui-là, puisque, d'autre part, l'individu est cette manière de se maintenir par rapport à l'autre. Mais ce qui ne peut pas faire cela et devient chimiquement quelque chose de différent de ce qu'il est empiriquement , confond la connaissance et l'entraîne dans le même débat quant à savoir si elle doit rester d'un côté ou de l'autre, puisque la chose elle-même n'est pas quelque chose de constant, et ils tombent. à part sur lui.</p> <p>Dans de tels systèmes d'auto-constance générale, cela signifie qu'il s'agit tout autant de l'auto-constance de la cognition que des choses elles-mêmes. Mais cet éventail de déterminations constantes , dont chacune décrit calmement la série de sa progression et dispose d'un espace pour s'exprimer, se fond essentiellement dans son contraire, dans la confusion de ces déterminations ; car le caractère, la détermination générale, est l'unité du contraire, du déterminé et de l'universel en soi ; Il faut donc qu'elle diverge dans cette opposition. Si, d'une part, la détermination conquiert l'universel dans lequel elle a son essence, alors, d'autre part, celui-ci maintient aussi sa domination sur lui, pousse la détermination jusqu'à ses limites, mélangeant ainsi ses différences et ses essentiels. L'observation, qui les a tenus bien séparés et qu'on croyait avoir quelque chose de solide, voit les autres franchir un principe, se former des transitions et des confusions, et en cela se relier ce qu'elle croyait d'abord être absolument séparé, et séparer ce qu'elle a ajouté ; de sorte que cette adhésion à l'être calme et constant doit se voir ici, surtout dans ses déterminations les plus générales, par exemple quelles sont les caractéristiques essentielles de l'animal, de la plante, avec des instances qui lui enlèvent toute détermination, l'universalité. vers lequel il s'est élevé, faites-le taire et remettez-le à une observation et une description insensées.</p> <p>Cette observation, qui se borne au simple ou à la distraction sensuelle par le général, trouve dans son objet la confusion de son principe , car le spécifique doit, par sa nature, se perdre dans son contraire ; La raison doit plutôt s'éloigner de la détermination inerte , qui avait l'air de demeurer, pour l'observer telle qu'elle est réellement, c'est-à-dire se rapporter à son contraire . Ce qu'on appelle les caractères essentiels sont des déterminations au repos qui, dans la mesure où elles s'expriment et sont comprises comme simples , ne représentent pas ce qui constitue leur nature, à savoir les moments de disparition du mouvement de retrait. Alors que l'instinct rationnel cherche maintenant la détermination de sa nature, non pas étant essentiellement en soi, mais passant dans le contraire, il cherche la loi et le concept de celle-ci ; Certes, selon eux, en tant que réalité existante , celle-ci disparaîtra effectivement de lui, et les aspects de la loi deviendront de purs moments ou abstractions, de sorte que la loi surgira dans la nature du concept, qui annihile l'existence indifférente de la réalité sensible. lui-même l'a.</p> <p>Pour la conscience observatrice, la vérité de la loi est dans l'expérience , comme dans la manière dont l'être sensible est pour elle ; pas en soi. Mais si la loi n'a pas sa vérité dans le concept, alors c'est quelque chose d'accidentel, ce n'est pas une nécessité, ou en fait ce n'est pas une loi. Mais le fait qu'il soit essentiel en tant que concept non seulement ne contredit pas le fait qu'il existe pour l'observation, mais au contraire, il a une existence nécessaire et est destiné à l'observation. Le général, au sens de généralité de la raison , est aussi général dans le sens qu'il en a, qu'il se présente à la conscience comme le présent et l'actuel, ou que le concept se présente à la manière d'une chose et d'un être sensuel. ; – mais sans perdre sa nature et tomber dans une existence indolente ou une succession indifférente. Ce qui est généralement valable l'est également ; Ce qui est censé être est en réalité , et ce qui est censé être sans être n'a pas de vérité. L'instinct de la raison, quant à lui, s'y accroche à juste titre et ne se laisse pas influencer par les choses de la pensée qui sont seulement censées être et comme avoir une vérité, même si elles ne sont rencontrées dans aucune expérience - simplement aussi peu par les hypothèses que par toutes d'autres invisibilités d'un perpétuel devraient confondre ; car la raison est précisément cette certitude d'avoir la réalité, et ce qui n'est pas un être-soi pour la conscience, c'est-à-dire ce qui n'apparaît pas, n'est rien du tout pour elle.</p> <p>Le fait que la vérité de la loi est essentiellement la réalité devient pour cette conscience, qui reste dans son observation, une opposition au concept, et à ce qui est universel en soi, ou à quelque chose comme sa loi, n'est pas un être de raison. pour lui ; il pense qu'il contient quelque chose d'étranger . Mais il réfute lui-même cette opinion par l'acte par lequel il ne prend pas lui-même son universalité en ce sens que toutes les choses sensibles individuelles doivent lui avoir montré l'apparence de la loi pour pouvoir en affirmer la vérité. Le fait que les pierres, ramassées sur la terre et relâchées, tombent ne nécessite pas que cette expérience soit faite avec toutes les pierres ; On peut bien dire que cela a dû au moins avoir été tenté avec un très grand nombre de personnes, d'où les autres peuvent alors être déduites avec la plus grande probabilité, ou en toute justice , par analogie . Mais non seulement l'analogie ne rend pas pleinement justice, mais, en raison de sa nature, elle se réfute si souvent que, à en juger par l'analogie elle-même, celle-ci ne permet de tirer aucune conclusion. La probabilité à laquelle se réduirait le résultat perd toute distinction entre probabilité inférieure et probabilité supérieure par rapport à la vérité ; Qu'il soit aussi grand qu'il veut, ce n'est rien comparé à la vérité. Mais l'instinct de la raison suppose en réalité que de telles lois sont la vérité , et ce n'est que par rapport à leur nécessité, qu'il ne reconnaît pas, qu'il tombe dans cette distinction et réduit la vérité de la chose elle-même à la probabilité, afin d'éviter la voie imparfaite. , dans lequel la vérité est présente pour la conscience qui n'a pas encore atteint l'aperçu du concept pur ; car l'universalité n'existe que comme universalité simple et immédiate . Mais en même temps, pour eux, la loi a la vérité pour conscience ; Le fait que la pierre tombe est vrai pour lui parce que la pierre est lourde pour lui , c'est-à-dire parce que dans son poids elle a en elle le rapport essentiel avec la terre , qui s'exprime comme une chute. Ainsi, dans l'expérience, il a l'être de la loi, mais aussi la même chose en tant que concept , et il ne lui est fidèle qu'en raison des deux circonstances réunies ; Elle compte comme loi parce qu'elle se présente en apparence et est en même temps un concept en soi.</p> <p>Parce que la loi est en même temps un concept en soi , l'instinct rationnel de cette conscience se propose nécessairement de purifier la loi et ses éléments en concepts, mais sans savoir qu'il le veut . Il fait des expériences sur la loi. Lorsque la loi apparaît pour la première fois, elle se présente impure, enveloppée par l'être sensuel individuel, le concept qui constitue sa nature enfoui dans la matière empirique. Dans ses tentatives, l'instinct rationnel vise à découvrir ce qui se passe dans telle ou telle circonstance. Cela semble seulement plonger davantage la loi dans l'être sensuel ; mais cela s'y perd en réalité. Cette recherche a le sens intrinsèque de retrouver les conditions pures du droit ; ce qui ne veut rien dire d'autre, même si la conscience qui s'exprime ainsi devait penser qu'elle dit autre chose que d'élever la loi entièrement à la forme du concept et d'effacer tout lien de ses moments avec l'être déterminé . L'électricité négative, par exemple, qui apparaît initialement comme électricité de résine et positive comme électricité de verre , perd complètement ce sens au fil des expériences et devient de l'électricité purement positive et négative , dont chacune n'appartient plus à un type particulier de chose ; et il n'est plus possible de dire qu'il y a des corps qui sont électriques positivement et d'autres qui sont électriques négativement. Le rapport entre acide et base et leur mouvement l'un par rapport à l'autre constitue également une loi dans laquelle ces opposés apparaissent comme des corps. Mais ces choses séparées n'ont aucune réalité ; la violence qui les déchire ne peut pas les empêcher de réintégrer immédiatement un procès ; parce qu'ils ne sont que cette relation. Ils ne peuvent pas rester seuls comme une dent ou une griffe et être signalés ainsi. Le fait que telle soit leur essence, passer directement en produit neutre, fait de leur être quelque chose d'aboli en soi, ou quelque chose de général, et l'acide et la base n'ont de vérité que comme étant générales . Ainsi, tout comme le verre et la résine peuvent être électriques à la fois positivement et négativement, l'acide et la base ne sont pas liés en tant que propriétés à telle ou telle réalité , mais chaque chose n'est que relative.acide ou basique ; Ce qui semble être une base ou un acide défini prend le sens opposé à un autre dans ce qu'on appelle la synsomatie. – Le résultat des expériences abolit ainsi les moments ou enthousiasmes comme propriétés de certaines choses et libère les prédicats de leurs sujets. Ces prédicats, tels qu'ils sont réellement, ne se trouvent que comme des prédicats généraux ; Pour cette indépendance, on leur donne le nom de matière , qui n'est ni corps ni propriétés, et on se garde bien d'appeler oxygène, etc., électricité positive et négative, chaleur, etc., corps.</p> <p>La matière , en revanche, n'est pas une chose existante , mais plutôt un être en tant qu'universel ou sous la forme d'un concept. La raison, qui est encore instinct, fait cette juste distinction sans se rendre compte qu'en appliquant la loi à tout être sensible, elle abolit son être purement sensuel, et, en concevant ses moments comme matière , s'approprie leur essence devenue générale. et dans cette expression s'exprime comme un sensuel insensible, comme un être désincarné et pourtant objectif.</p> <p>On voit maintenant quelle tournure prend pour lui son résultat et quelle forme nouvelle son observation prend avec lui. Comme vérité de cette conscience éprouvante, nous voyons la loi pure, qui se libère de l'être sensuel, nous la voyons comme un concept présent dans l'être sensuel, mais qui se déplace en lui de manière indépendante et non liée, et qui y est immergé, libre de lui. et un concept simple . Celui-ci, qui est en vérité le résultat et l'essence , apparaît maintenant à cette conscience elle-même, mais comme un objet , précisément parce qu'il n'est pas le résultat pour elle et sans rapport avec le mouvement précédent, comme un type particulier d'objet, et son relation avec cela comme un autre type d'observation.</p> <p>Un tel objet, qui contient le processus dans la simplicité du concept, est l' organique . C'est cette fluidité absolue dans laquelle se dissout la détermination par laquelle elle n'existerait que pour autrui . Si la chose inorganique a la détermination comme partie de son essence, et donc seulement avec une autre chose, elle constitue la complétude des moments du concept, et se perd donc dans le mouvement ; D'autre part, toutes les déterminations de l'être organique, par lesquelles il s'ouvre aux autres choses, sont liées sous la simple unité organique ; personne n'apparaît comme essentiel qui se rapporte librement à autre chose ; et l'organique se maintient donc dans sa relation.</p> <p>Les aspects de la loi que l'instinct rationnel observe ici sont, comme il ressort de cette détermination, avant tout la nature organique et la nature inorganique dans leurs relations réciproques. Pour l'organique, cette dernière est précisément la liberté des déterminations non liées , à l'opposé de son simple concept , dans lequel la nature individuelle est simultanément dissoute et de la continuité de laquelle elle se sépare simultanément et est pour elle-même . L'air, l'eau, la terre, les zones et le climat sont des éléments généraux qui constituent l'essence indéfinie et simple des individualités et dans lesquels ils se reflètent en même temps en eux-mêmes. Ni l'individualité n'est absolue en elle-même ni élémentaire, mais dans la liberté indépendante dans laquelle elles se présentent l'une envers l'autre pour l'observation, elles se comportent en même temps comme des relations essentielles , mais de telle manière que l'indépendance et l'indifférence de l'une et de l'autre l'un envers l'autre est la chose dominante et ne passe que partiellement à l'abstraction. Ici donc, la loi existe comme rapport d'un élément à la formation de l'organique, qui tantôt a l'être élémentaire par rapport à lui-même, tantôt le représente dans son reflet organique. Mais de telles lois , selon lesquelles les animaux qui appartiennent à l'air sont de la nature des oiseaux, qui sont de la nature des oiseaux, qui sont de la nature des poissons, les animaux nordiques ont une fourrure épaisse, etc., montrent immédiatement une pauvreté que la diversité organique ne fait pas. correspond. De plus, le fait que la liberté organique sache priver ces déterminations de leurs formes et offre nécessairement des exceptions à de telles lois ou règles, comme on voudrait les appeler, reste une détermination tellement superficielle chez ceux qui en relèvent l'expression de sa nécessité. ne peut en être autrement, et ne l'amène pas au-delà de la grande influence ; de sorte qu'on ne sait pas ce qui appartient réellement à cette influence et ce qui n'en fait pas partie. De telles relations entre l'organique et l'élémentaire ne peuvent en fait pas être appelées lois , car en partie, comme nous nous en souvenons, une telle relation n'épuise pas la portée de l'organique en termes de contenu, mais en partie les moments de la relation eux-mêmes restent indifférents à les uns les autres et n'expriment aucun besoin. Dans le concept d'acide réside le concept de base, tout comme dans le concept de positif il y a l'électricité négative ; Mais tout autant l'épaisse fourrure du nord, ou la structure des poissons avec l'eau, la structure des oiseaux avec l'air.peut être rencontré , le concept du nord ne contient pas le concept de cheveux épais, la mer ne contient pas le concept de structure des poissons, l'air ne contient pas le concept de structure des oiseaux. En raison de cette liberté des deux côtés l'un envers l'autre, il existe aussi des animaux terrestres qui présentent les caractères essentiels d'un oiseau, d'un poisson, etc. La nécessité, parce qu'elle ne peut être comprise comme quelque chose d'intérieur à l'être, cesse également d'avoir une existence sensuelle et ne peuvent plus être observés dans la réalité, mais en ont émergé. Ne se trouvant pas dans l'être réel lui-même, c'est ce qu'on appelle une relation téléologique, une relation qui est extérieure à la relation et qui est donc plutôt à l'opposé d'une loi. C'est la pensée complètement libérée de la nature nécessaire, qui la quitte et se déplace d'elle-même au-dessus d'elle.</p> <p>Si la relation mentionnée précédemment entre la nature organique et la nature élémentaire n'exprime pas son essence, alors elle est contenue dans le concept de finalité . Pour cette conscience observatrice, ce n'est pas l' essence propre de l'organique, mais cela se situe en dehors de lui et n'est alors que cette relation téléologique externe. Mais comme l'organique a été préalablement déterminé, il est en fait le véritable but lui-même ; car en ce qu'elle se maintient par rapport aux autres choses , elle est précisément cet être naturel dans lequel la nature se reflète dans le concept et les moments d'une cause et d'un effet, d'un actif et d'un souffrant, séparés par nécessité, en un seul. pris ensemble ; de sorte que quelque chose n'apparaît pas ici simplement par nécessité ; mais, parce qu'il est rentré en lui-même, le dernier ou le résultat est tout autant le premier , qui commence le mouvement et est le but qu'il réalise. L'organique ne produit pas quelque chose, mais se maintient seulement , ou bien ce qui est produit est déjà là au moment où il est produit.</p> <p>Cette détermination est à discuter plus en détail telle qu'elle est en elle-même et telle qu'elle est pour l'instinct rationnel afin de voir comment il s'y retrouve mais ne se reconnaît pas dans ce qu'il trouve. Le concept de but auquel s'élève la raison observatrice, en tant que concept conscient , est donc présent tout autant que quelque chose de réel ; et ce n'est pas seulement une relation extérieure de celui-ci, mais son essence . Ce réel, qui est lui-même une fin, se rapporte convenablement à autre chose, c'est-à-dire que son rapport est contingent, d'après ce que l'un et l'autre sont immédiats ; Tous deux sont immédiatement indépendants et indifférents l'un à l'autre. Mais l'essence de leur relation est différente de ce qu'ils semblent être, et leurs actions ont une signification différente de celle qu'elles ont immédiatement pour la perception sensorielle ; La nécessité est cachée dans ce qui arrive et ne se montre qu'à la fin , mais de telle sorte que cette fin même montre qu'elle fut aussi la première. Mais la fin montre cette priorité d'elle-même dans la mesure où rien ne sort du changement apporté par l'action autre que ce qui était déjà. Ou bien, si l'on part du premier, alors à la fin ou dans le résultat de ses actions, il ne fait que revenir à lui-même ; et c'est précisément ainsi qu'il se révèle être quelque chose qui a atteint sa fin, c'est-à-dire qu'il est déjà revenu à soi d'abord, ou qu'il est en et pour soi . Ce qu'il réalise par le mouvement de ses actions, c'est lui-même ; et le fait qu'il ne s'atteigne qu'à lui-même est son sentiment de soi . La différence entre ce qu'elle est et ce qu'elle recherche est bien présente, mais ce n'est que l' apparence d'une différence , et cela signifie qu'elle est un concept en soi.</p> <p>Mais la conscience de soi est également conçue pour se distinguer d'elle-même de telle manière qu'en même temps aucune différence n'apparaisse. Ainsi, en observant la nature organique, il ne trouve rien d'autre que cet être ; il se trouve comme chose, comme vie , mais il fait néanmoins une distinction entre ce qu'il est lui-même et ce qu'il a trouvé, qui pourtant n'est pas. De même que l'instinct de l'animal cherche de la nourriture et la consomme, mais ne produit rien d'autre que lui-même, de même l'instinct de la raison ne trouve que lui-même dans sa recherche. L'animal finit par se sentir soi-même. L'instinct rationnel, au contraire, est en même temps conscience de soi ; mais parce qu'il n'est qu'instinct, il se place d'un côté par rapport à la conscience et a en elle son contraire. Sa satisfaction est donc divisée par ceci : il se trouve, à savoir le but , et aussi ce but en tant que chose . Mais le but lui incombe d'abord en dehors de la chose qui se présente comme but. Deuxièmement, cette fin en tant que fin est en même temps objective , et donc elle ne lui vient pas en elle-même en tant que conscience, mais dans une autre compréhension.</p> <p>Si l'on y regarde de plus près, cette détermination réside aussi dans le concept de la chose, qu'elle est une fin en soi . C'est-à-dire qu'il se conserve ; c'est-à-dire qu'en même temps il est dans sa nature de dissimuler la nécessité et de la présenter sous la forme d' une relation accidentelle ; car sa liberté ou son être-pour-soi est précisément cela, se comporter comme quelque chose d'indifférent à ce qui est nécessaire ; Il se présente donc comme quelque chose dont le concept échappe à son être. De la même manière, la raison a la nécessité de considérer son propre concept comme étant extérieur à elle-même, comme une chose , comme quelque chose qui lui est indifférent, et qui est par là mutuellement indifférent à elle et à son concept . Comme instinct, il reste aussi dans cet être ou indifférence , et la chose qui exprime le concept reste autre que ce concept, le concept autre que la chose. Ainsi, pour eux, la chose organique n'est qu'une fin en soi, de telle sorte que la nécessité, qui se présente comme cachée dans son action, en ce sens que l'auteur s'y comporte comme un être indifférent à elle-même, tombe en dehors de l'organique lui-même. – Mais comme l'organique, comme fin en soi, ne peut se comporter autrement que comme tel, cela aussi apparaît et est présent aux sens, qu'il est une fin en soi, et il s'observe ainsi. L'organique se présente comme quelque chose qui se soutient et revient et revient à lui-même . Mais dans cet être, cette conscience observatrice ne reconnaît pas le concept de but, ni le fait que le concept de but n'existe pas ailleurs dans une compréhension, mais existe ici et est en tant que chose. Cela fait une différence entre la notion de but et entre être pour soi et se maintenir, ce qui n'est ni l'un ni l'autre. Le fait qu'il ne soit pas un n'est pas pour lui, mais plutôt une action qui semble accidentelle et indifférente à ce qui en résulte, et à l'unité qui lie les deux ensemble - cette action et ce but s'effondrent pour lui.</p> <p>Dans cette conception, ce qui appartient à l'organique lui-même, c'est l'action qui se situe entre son premier et son dernier, dans la mesure où elle possède en elle le caractère d'individualité. Mais l'action, dans la mesure où elle a le caractère d'universalité et où le faire est assimilé à ce qui en est produit, l'action intentionnelle en tant que telle, n'en ferait pas partie. Cette action individuelle qui n'est qu'un moyen relève, par son individualité, de la détermination d'une nécessité tout à fait individuelle ou accidentelle. Ce que fait l'organique pour se préserver en tant qu'individu ou en tant qu'espèce est donc totalement illégal en termes de contenu immédiat, car l'universel et le concept en échappent. Son action serait donc une activité vide de sens, sans contenu en soi ; Ce ne serait même pas l'efficacité d'une machine, car elle a un but et son efficacité a donc un certain contenu. Ainsi désertée de l'universel, elle serait l'activité d'un seul être comme étant , c'est-à-dire non réfléchie simultanément en soi, comme celle d'un acide ou d'une base ; une efficacité qui ne saurait se séparer de son existence immédiate, ni y renoncer, qui se perd dans le rapport à son contraire, mais qui pourrait encore se préserver. Mais l'être, dont l'effectivité est celle considérée ici, se pose comme une chose qui se maintient dans son rapport à son contraire ; l'activité comme telle n'est rien d'autre que la forme pure et insubstantielle de son être-pour-soi, et sa substance, qui n'est pas seulement un être déterminé mais l'universel, sa finalité n'en sort pas ; C'est une activité qui retourne en elle-même et n'est pas dirigée vers elle-même par quelque chose d'extérieur.</p> <p>Mais cette unité de l'universalité et de l'activité n'est pas pour cette conscience observatrice , parce que cette unité est essentiellement le mouvement intérieur de l'organique et ne peut être comprise que comme un concept ; Mais l'observation cherche les moments sous forme d'être et de rester ; et parce que le tout organique est essentiellement ceci, qu'il ne contient pas les moments et ne peut s'y trouver, la conscience, selon elle, transforme le contraire en celui qui lui convient.</p> <p>Ainsi, l'être organique surgit pour lui comme un rapport entre deux moments existants et fixes - une opposition dont les deux faces semblent lui être données d'une part dans l'observation, et d'autre part, en termes de leur contenu exprime l'opposition du concept organique de finalité et de réalité ; mais parce que le concept en tant que tel en a été effacé, d'une manière sombre et superficielle, où la pensée a sombré dans la représentation. Ainsi nous voyons le premier compris grossièrement sous l' interne , l'autre sous l' externe , et leur relation produit la loi selon laquelle l'externe est l'expression de l'interne .</p> <p>Si l'on regarde de plus près cet intérieur avec son contraire et ses relations l'un avec l'autre, il apparaît que, tout d'abord, les deux faces de la loi ne se lisent plus comme dans les lois antérieures, dans lesquelles elles apparaissaient chacune comme des choses indépendantes comme un corps spécial, ni pour l'autre de la même manière que l'universel devrait avoir son existence ailleurs en dehors des êtres . Au contraire, l'être organique est fondamental, indivis, en tant que contenu de l'intérieur et de l'extérieur, et le même pour les deux ; L'opposition n'est donc que purement formelle, dont les faces réelles ont pour essence le même en-soi , mais en même temps, puisque l'intérieur et l'extérieur sont aussi une réalité opposée et un être différent à observer , ils semblent chacun avoir leur propre contenu. Ce contenu particulier, puisqu'il s'agit de la même substance ou unité organique, ne peut en fait en être qu'une forme différente ; et cela est indiqué par la conscience observatrice dans la mesure où l'extérieur n'est qu'une expression de l'intérieur. – Nous avons vu les mêmes déterminations de la relation, à savoir l'indépendance indifférente des différents, et en cela leur unité, dans laquelle ils disparaissent, dans la notion de finalité.</p> <p>On peut maintenant voir quelle forme l'intérieur et l'extérieur ont dans son être. L'intérieur comme tel doit avoir un être extérieur et une forme tout autant que l'extérieur comme tel, car il est un objet ou lui-même posé comme étant et présent à l'observation.</p> <p>La substance organique comme interne est l' âme simple , le pur concept de finalité ou d' universel , qui dans sa division reste tout aussi liquide général, et apparaît donc dans son être comme le faire ou le mouvement de la réalité en voie de disparition ; puisque, d'autre part, l' externe existe , à l'opposé de l'interne existant, dans l' être au repos de l'organique. La loi en tant que relation entre cet intérieur et cet extérieur exprime ici son contenu, d'une part dans la représentation de moments généraux ou d'entités simples , et d'autre part dans la représentation de l'entité ou de la forme réalisée . Ces premières propriétés organiques simples , pour les appeler ainsi, sont la sensibilité, l'irritabilité et la reproduction . Ces propriétés, du moins les deux premières, ne semblent pas concerner l'organisme en général, mais seulement l'animal. Le végétatif n'exprime en réalité que le concept simple de l'organisme, qui ne développe pas ses moments ; C'est pourquoi, à leur égard, dans la mesure où ils sont destinés à l'observation, il faut s'en tenir à celui qui représente leur existence développée.</p> <p>Pour eux, ils découlent directement de la notion de fin en soi. Car la sensibilité en général exprime le simple concept de réflexion organique en elle-même, ou sa fluidité générale ; l' irritabilité mais l'élasticité organique pour se comporter de manière réactive dans la réflexion , et la prise de conscience opposée au premier être-en-soi calme , dans lequel cet être-pour-soi abstrait est un être pour les autres . Mais la reproduction est l'action de cet organisme tout entier réfléchie en lui-même, son activité comme fin en soi ou comme espèce , dans laquelle l'individu se repousse de lui-même, soit en répétant ses parties organiques, soit en produisant l'individu tout entier. Prise au sens d' autoconservation en général, la reproduction exprime le concept formel de l'organique ou de la sensibilité ; mais c'est en réalité le concept organique réel, ou le tout , qui revient à lui-même en tant qu'individu, soit par la production de parties individuelles de lui-même, soit en tant qu'espèce par la production d'individus.</p> <p>L' autre signification de ces éléments organiques, à savoir comme externes , est la manière dont ils se forment , dans laquelle ils existent comme réels , mais en même temps aussi comme parties générales ou systèmes organiques ; La sensibilité comme système nerveux, l'irritabilité comme système musculaire, la reproduction comme viscères de la préservation de l'individu et de l'espèce.</p> <p>Les lois particulières de l'organique concernent donc une relation des moments organiques dans leur double sens, d'une part faisant partie de la formation organique , d'autre part étant une détermination fluide générale qui traverse tous ces systèmes. Dans l'expression d'une telle loi, par exemple, une certaine sensibilité en tant que moment de l' organisme tout entier aurait son expression dans un système nerveux spécifiquement formé, ou elle serait également liée à une certaine reproduction des parties organiques de l'individu ou reproduction de l'ensemble, etc. – Les deux faces d'une telle loi peuvent être observées . Selon son concept, l' extérieur est l' être pour autrui ; La sensibilité, par exemple, a sa forme directement réalisée dans le système sensible ; et en tant que propriété générale, elle est également objective dans ses expressions . Le côté appelé intérieur a son propre côté extérieur, qui est différent de ce qu'on appelle dans son ensemble l' extérieur .</p> <p>On pouvait certes observer les deux faces d'une loi organique, mais non les lois de leurs relations ; et l'observation n'est pas suffisante parce que, en tant qu'observation , elle serait trop myope et ne devrait pas procéder de manière empirique, mais devrait être basée sur l'idée ; car de telles lois, si elles étaient quelque chose de réel, devraient effectivement exister et donc être observables ; mais parce que l'idée de lois de ce genre s'avère n'avoir aucune vérité.</p> <p>La relation qui s'est produite pour une loi était que la propriété organique générale d'un système organique s'était transformée en une chose et avait son empreinte formée sur elle, de sorte que les deux étaient le même être, présent comme un moment général à un moment donné, et comme un moment général. une chose à une autre. Mais en outre, le côté de l'intérieur est en soi une relation entre plusieurs côtés, et l'idée d'une loi, en tant que relation d'activités ou de propriétés organiques générales les unes avec les autres, s'impose d'abord. La question de savoir si une telle chose est possible doit être décidée par la nature d'une telle propriété. Cependant, comme fluide général, elle n'est pas quelque chose qui se limite selon la manière d'une chose et qui est contenu dans la différence d'une existence qui devrait en constituer la forme, mais la sensibilité dépasse le système nerveux et à travers tous les autres systèmes de le tout dans l'organisme - c'est en partie un moment général qui est essentiellement indivis et inséparable de la réaction ou de l'irritabilité et de la reproduction. Parce qu'en tant que reflet en lui-même, il y réagit. Seul se refléter en soi est passivité, ou être mort, non une sensibilité, tout aussi peu que l'action, qui est la même chose qu'une réaction, sans se refléter en soi est irritabilité. Le reflet dans l'action ou la réaction, et l'action ou la réaction dans le reflet, est précisément ce dont l'unité constitue l'organique, unité qui est synonyme de reproduction organique. Il s'ensuit que dans chaque aspect de la réalité, il doit y avoir la même grandeur de sensibilité - si l'on considère d'abord le rapport entre celle-ci et l'irritabilité - que l'irritabilité, et qu'un phénomène organique est compris et déterminé tout autant selon l'un que l'autre. selon l'autre, ou comme vous le souhaitez, cela peut être expliqué. Ce qu'une personne considère comme une sensibilité élevée, une autre peut tout aussi bien la considérer comme une irritabilité élevée et une irritabilité du même niveau . Lorsqu'ils sont appelés facteurs , et cela n'est pas censé être un mot dénué de sens, cela signifie qu'ils sont des moments du concept, c'est-à-dire que l'objet réel, dont l'essence constitue ce concept, les contient de la même manière, et si l'un est déterminé comme étant très sensible, tandis que l'autre est déterminé comme étant tout aussi irritable.</p> <p>S'ils sont distingués, comme cela est nécessaire, alors ils le sont dans leur concept, et leur opposition est qualitative . Mais en plus de ces véritables différences, elles semblent également existantes et différentes pour l'idée de la façon dont elles pourraient être des aspects du droit, elles apparaissent donc dans une différence quantitative . Leur opposition qualitative particulière apparaît ainsi en termes de taille , et des lois du genre apparaissent selon lesquelles, par exemple, la sensibilité et l'irritabilité sont en proportion inverse de leur taille, de sorte que lorsque l'une augmente, l'autre diminue ; ou plutôt, on tient compte de la taille elle-même, du fait que la taille de quelque chose augmente à mesure que sa petitesse diminue. – Mais si on donne à cette loi un certain contenu, par exemple de telle sorte que la taille d'un trou augmente à mesure que diminue ce qui constitue son accomplissement , alors cette relation inverse peut aussi être transformée en relation droite et exprimée de telle sorte que la la taille du trou en proportions droites de la quantité retirée augmente ; - une phrase tautologique , elle peut être exprimée comme une relation directe ou inverse, ce qui dans son expression particulière signifie seulement qu'une quantité augmente à mesure que cette quantité augmente. La manière dont le trou et ce qui le remplit et qui est ôté sont qualitativement opposés, mais comment son réel et sa taille déterminée sont une seule et même chose dans les deux cas, et de même que l'augmentation de la taille et la diminution de la petitesse sont les mêmes, et leur une opposition dénuée de sens se transforme en une tautologie, les moments organiques sont également indissociables dans leur réalité et dans leur grandeur, qui en est la grandeur ; l'un ne fait que diminuer avec l'autre et ne fait qu'augmenter avec lui, car l'un n'a de sens que dans la mesure où l'autre est présent - ou plutôt il est indifférent de considérer un phénomène organique comme irritabilité ou comme sensibilité, même en général, et même si leur ampleur est discuté. Peu importe combien il est indifférent d'exprimer l'augmentation d'un trou comme une augmentation de son vide ou comme une augmentation de la plénitude qui en a été retirée. Ou bien un nombre, par exemple trois , reste de la même taille, je peux le prendre positif ou négatif ; et si j'augmente le trois à quatre, le positif et le négatif deviennent quatre - tout comme le pôle sud d'un aimant est aussi fort que son pôle nord, ou une électricité positive ou un acide est aussi fort que son pôle négatif ou son pôle nord. comme cette base, sur quoi elle agit. – Quelque chose d'aussi grand que ces trois-là, ou un aimant, etc., est une existence organique ; c'est ce qui est augmenté et diminué, et quand il augmente, les deux facteurs qui le composent sont augmentés, dans la mesure oùles deux pôles de l'aimant, ou comme les deux électricités, lorsqu'un aimant, etc. est renforcé, augmentent. – Le fait que les deux soient tout aussi peu différents en termes d' intension et d'extension , que l'un ne puisse pas diminuer en extension mais augmenter en intensité, tandis que l'autre, à l'inverse, devrait diminuer son intensification mais augmenter en extension, relève de la même notion de opposition vide de sens ; l'intension réelle est aussi grande que l'extension, et vice versa.</p> <p>Comme il est clair, ce qui se passe en réalité dans cette législation, c'est que l'irritabilité et la sensibilité constituent d'abord l'opposition organique définitive ; Mais ce contenu se perd, et l'opposition s'opère dans les formalités de l'augmentation et de la diminution de taille, ou des différentes intensions et extensions - opposition qui ne concerne plus la nature de la sensibilité et de l'irritabilité et ne les exprime plus. Par conséquent, ce jeu vide de lois n'est pas lié aux moments organiques, mais peut être réalisé n'importe où avec n'importe quoi, et repose généralement sur l'ignorance de la nature logique de ces contraires.</p> <p>Si, au lieu de la sensibilité et de l'irritabilité, c'est finalement la reproduction qui est mise en rapport avec l'une ou l'autre, alors la raison de cette législation disparaît également ; car la reproduction ne s'oppose pas à ces moments comme ils le sont les uns aux autres ; et puisque cette législation est basée sur elle, l'apparence de sa réalisation disparaît également.</p> <p>La législation que nous venons d'examiner contient les différences de l'organisme dans la signification des moments de son concept et devrait en réalité être une législation a priori. Mais l'idée qu'ils ont la signification des choses existantes réside essentiellement en elle-même , et la conscience qui se contente d'observer doit de toute façon s'en tenir à leur existence. La réalité organique comporte nécessairement en elle une telle opposition qu'exprime son concept, et qu'on peut définir comme irritabilité et sensibilité dès lors qu'elles apparaissent toutes deux différentes de la reproduction. – L' extériorité dans laquelle les moments du concept organique sont ici considérés est l' extériorité propre et immédiate de l'intérieur, et non l' extérieur , qui est l'extérieur dans son ensemble et sa forme , et avec lequel l'intérieur doit ensuite être considéré en relation.</p> <p>Mais si l'opposition des moments est comprise telle qu'elle existe, alors la sensibilité, l'irritabilité et la reproduction se réduisent à des propriétés communes qui sont des généralités aussi indifférentes les unes aux autres que la densité, la couleur, la dureté, etc. En ce sens, on peut certainement observer qu'un être organique est plus sensible, ou plus irritable, ou a un plus grand pouvoir reproductif qu'un autre - tout comme la sensibilité, etc., d'une personne est de nature différente de celle d'une autre, et l'une est différent envers certains stimuli se comporte différemment d'un autre, de même que le cheval se comporte différemment envers l'avoine et envers le foin, et le chien encore différemment envers les deux, etc., de même qu'on peut observer qu'un corps est plus dur qu'un autre, et ainsi de suite. – Mais ces propriétés sensuelles, dureté, couleur, etc., ainsi que les phénomènes de réceptivité à l'avoine, d'irritabilité aux fardeaux, ou encore le nombre et la manière de donner naissance aux petits, lorsqu'ils sont apparentés et comparés les uns aux autres, contredisent essentiellement une loi. . Car la détermination de leur être sensuel consiste précisément à exister dans une totale indifférence les uns envers les autres, et à représenter la liberté de la nature libérée du concept plutôt que l'unité d'une relation, plutôt son jeu déraisonnable sur l'échelle de la grandeur accidentelle. entre les moments du concept que ceux-ci eux-mêmes.</p> <p>L' autre côté, selon lequel les moments simples du concept organique sont comparés aux moments de conception , donnerait d'abord la loi actuelle, qui exprimerait le véritable extérieur comme une empreinte de l' intérieur . – Parce que ces moments simples sont des propriétés fluides pénétrantes, ils n'ont pas une expression réelle aussi séparée dans la chose organique que ce qu'on appelle un système unique de forme. Ou si l'idée abstraite de l'organisme ne s'exprime véritablement que dans ces trois moments parce qu'ils ne sont pas quelque chose de statique, mais seulement des moments de concept et de mouvement, alors en tant que forme, elle n'est pas impliquée dans trois systèmes spécifiques comme l'anatomie démontée. Dans la mesure où de tels systèmes doivent être trouvés dans leur réalité et légitimés par cette découverte, il faut également rappeler que l'anatomie n'en possède pas seulement trois, mais bien d'autres. – Ensuite, à part cela, le système sensible doit signifier quelque chose de complètement différent de ce qu'on appelle le système nerveux , le système irritable quelque chose de différent du système musculaire , le système reproducteur quelque chose de différent des viscères de la reproduction. Dans les systèmes de formes en tant que tels, l'organisme est conçu selon le côté abstrait de l'existence morte ; ses moments ainsi capturés appartiennent à l'anatomie et au cadavre, non à la connaissance et à l'organisme vivant. Au contraire, en tant que telles, elles ont cessé d'être , parce qu'elles cessent d'être des processus. Puisque l' être de l'organisme est essentiellement universalité ou réflexion en soi, l' être de son tout, comme ses moments, ne peut exister dans un système anatomique, mais plutôt l'expression réelle et son externalité n'est présente que comme un mouvement qui traverse les différents parties de la conception, et dans lequel ce qui est arraché et fixé en tant que système individuel se présente essentiellement comme un moment fluide, de sorte que non pas la réalité telle que l'anatomie la trouve puisse être considérée comme sa réalité, mais seulement comme un processus, dans dans lequel les parties anatomiques seules ont un sens.</p> <p>Il s'ensuit donc que ni les moments de l' intérieur organique, pris isolément, ne sont capables de fournir les aspects d'une loi de l'être ; en ce qu'ils s'expriment dans une telle loi d'une existence distincte les unes des autres, et que chacun ne devrait pas pouvoir être appelé de la même manière à la place de l'autre ; ni que, placées d'un côté, elles ont de l'autre leur réalisation dans un système fixe ; car celui-ci n'est pas plus quelque chose qui ait une vérité organique, pas plus qu'il n'est l'expression de ces moments de l'intérieur. L'essence de l'organique, puisqu'il est en soi le général, est plutôt que ses moments dans la réalité sont tout aussi généraux, c'est-à-dire comme des processus continus, mais non pour donner une image du général dans une chose isolée.</p> <p>De cette façon, l' idée d'une loi se perd dans l'organique. Le droit veut comprendre et exprimer l'opposition comme des camps au repos, et en eux la détermination qui est leur relation les uns aux autres. L' intérieur , auquel appartient l'universalité apparaissante, et l' extérieur , auquel appartiennent les parties de la forme au repos, devraient constituer les côtés correspondants de la loi, mais lorsqu'ils sont ainsi séparés, ils perdent leur signification organique ; et l'idée de la loi repose sur ce fait même que ses deux faces ont une existence indépendante et indépendante, et la relation leur est distribuée comme une double détermination correspondante. Bien plutôt, chaque face de l'organique est cela en soi, une simple universalité dans laquelle se dissolvent toutes les déterminations, et est le mouvement de cette dissolution.</p> <p>La compréhension de la différence entre cette législation et les formes antérieures éclairera complètement sa nature. – Si l'on revient sur le mouvement de la perception et de l'entendement qui réfléchit sur lui-même et détermine ainsi son objet, alors il n'a pas à l'esprit le rapport entre ces déterminations abstraites, le général et l'individuel, l'essentiel et l'extérieur, dans son objet lui-même, mais il est lui-même le passage, auquel ce passage ne devient pas objectif. Ici, au contraire, il y a l'unité organique, c'est-à-dire la relation de ces opposés, et cette relation est une pure transition, elle-même l' objet . Ce passage dans sa simplicité est immédiatement universalité , et comme il entre dans la différence dont la loi est censée exprimer le rapport, ses moments sont comme des objets généraux de cette conscience, et la loi est que l' externe est l'expression de l' interne . Ici, l'entendement a saisi l'idée de la loi elle-même, puisqu'auparavant elle ne cherchait que les lois en général, et les moments de celles-ci existaient devant elle comme un contenu spécifique, et non comme leurs pensées. – En ce qui concerne le contenu, il ne s'agit pas ici d'obtenir des lois qui ne soient qu'une calme absorption de différences purement existantes dans la forme de la généralité, mais plutôt des lois qui reflètent directement le trouble du concept dans ces différences, et donc à en même temps il y a la nécessité de la relation des pages. Simplement parce que l'objet, l'unité organique, la sublation infinie ou la négation absolue de l'être est directement uni à l'être calme, et que les moments sont essentiellement une pure transition , aucun aspect existant n'apparaît comme requis par la loi.</p> <p>Pour y parvenir, l'entendement doit adhérer à l'autre moment de la relation organique ; c'est-à-dire le reflet de l'existence organique en soi. Mais cet être se reflète si complètement en lui-même qu'il ne lui reste aucune détermination sur quoi que ce soit d'autre. L'être sensible immédiat ne fait immédiatement qu'un avec la détermination en tant que telle et exprime donc en elle une différence qualitative ; comme le bleu contre le rouge, l'acide contre l'alcalin, etc. Mais l'être organique qui est revenu à lui-même est complètement indifférent aux autres choses, son existence est la simple universalité, et refuse à l'observation toute différence sensuelle durable, ou ce qui revient au même montre son détermination essentielle uniquement comme changement de déterminations existantes. La manière dont la différence s'exprime comme être est précisément qu'elle est indifférente , c'est-à-dire comme quantité . Mais ici le concept a été effacé et la nécessité a disparu. – Mais le contenu et l'accomplissement de cet être indifférent, le changement des déterminations sensorielles, pris ensemble dans la simplicité d'une détermination organique, exprime alors en même temps le fait qu'il n'a pas cette - la qualité immédiate - détermination, et le qualitatif relève uniquement de cette Taille comme nous l'avons vu plus haut.</p> <p>Ainsi, que l'objectif, conçu comme détermination organique, possède déjà le concept en lui-même et se distingue ainsi de ce qui est destiné à l'entendement, qui se comporte comme un pur percevant dans la compréhension du contenu de ses lois, c'est le cas. remonte entièrement au principe et à la manière de comprendre simplement percevoir, parce que ce qui est appréhendé est utilisé pour des moments d'une loi ; car ainsi il acquiert la forme d'une détermination fixe, la forme d'une propriété immédiate ou d'un phénomène au repos, est en outre inclus dans la détermination de la grandeur, et la nature du concept est supprimée. – L'échange d'une chose simplement perçue contre quelque chose qui se reflète en soi, d'une détermination purement sensuelle contre une détermination organique, perd à nouveau sa valeur, notamment parce que l'entendement n'a pas encore aboli l'établissement de lois.</p> <p>Pour faire la comparaison avec cet échange en utilisant quelques exemples, ce qui est perceptuellement un animal avec des muscles forts est vu comme un organisme animal de grande irritabilité, ou ce qui est perceptuellement un état de grande faiblesse est vu comme un état de haute sensibilité. ou, si l'on préfère, comme une affection anormale, à savoir une exponentiation de celle-ci (expressions qui mettent le sensuel, au lieu du concept, en latin - et mauvais en plus) traduire). Le fait que l'animal ait des muscles forts peut également être exprimé par l'esprit en disant que l'animal a une grande force musculaire – comme une grande faiblesse comme peu de force . La détermination par irritabilité a, avant la détermination comme force , que celle-ci exprime le reflet indéterminé en elle-même, tandis que celle-ci exprime le déterminé, car la puissance particulière du muscle est précisément l'irritabilité - et avant la détermination comme muscles forts , cela comme déjà dans la force la réflexion y est contenue en même temps. Tout comme la faiblesse ou la faible force, la passivité organique s'exprime définitivement à travers la sensibilité . Mais cette sensibilité prise seule et fixe, et encore liée à la détermination des grandeurs , et comme une sensibilité plus ou moins grande opposée à une plus ou moins irritabilité, chacune est tout à fait réduite à l'élément sensuel et à la forme commune d'une qualité et de son La relation n'est pas le concept, mais au contraire la quantité dans laquelle tombe désormais le contraire et devient une différence irréfléchie. Si c'est l'expression indéfinie du pouvoir , de la force et de la faiblessea été supprimée, ce qui surgit maintenant est une dérive également vide et indéfinie dans les opposés d'une sensibilité supérieure et inférieure, une irritabilité dans leur montée et leur descente l'une vers l'autre et contre l'autre. Tout comme la force et la faiblesse sont des déterminations complètement sensuelles et irréfléchies, la sensibilité plus ou moins grande, l'irritabilité, est le phénomène sensuel inconsidérément compris et tout aussi exprimé. Le concept n'a pas remplacé ces expressions sans concept, mais la force et la faiblesse ont été comblées par une détermination qui, prise isolément, se fonde sur le concept et l'a pour contenu, mais perd complètement cette origine et ce caractère. – Par la forme de simplicité et d'immédiateté dans laquelle ce contenu se fait du côté d'une loi, et par la grandeur qui constitue l'élément de différence entre de telles déterminations, l'être qui existe originellement et qui se pose comme concept conserve le mode de sensoriel. perception, et reste tellement éloigné de la connaissance qu'il est déterminé par la force et la faiblesse de la force, ou par les propriétés sensorielles immédiates.</p> <p>Il reste à considérer maintenant ce qu'est l' extérieur de l'organique, et comment l'opposition de son intérieur et de son extérieur est déterminée par lui ; tout comme l' intérieur de l'ensemble a d'abord été considéré par rapport à son propre extérieur.</p> <p>L' extérieur , considéré pour lui-même, est la formation en général, le système de vie structuré en élément d' être , et en même temps essentiellement l'être de l'être organique pour un autre - l'être objectif dans son être pour soi . – Cet autre apparaît d'abord comme sa nature externe, inorganique. En considérant ces deux choses par rapport à une loi, comme nous l'avons vu plus haut, la nature inorganique ne peut constituer le versant d'une loi contre l'être organique, parce que celui-ci est à la fois absolument en soi et a avec lui un rapport général et libre.</p> <p>Mais la relation entre ces deux aspects est déterminée plus étroitement par la forme organique elle-même : d'un côté, elle se retourne contre la nature inorganique, et de l'autre, elle se reflète pour elle-même et en elle-même. L' être organique réel est le centre qui relie l' être-pour-soi de la vie avec l' extériorité en général ou l' être-en-soi . – Mais l'extrême de l'être-pour-soi, c'est l'intérieur comme infini, qui reprend en soi les moments de la forme elle-même à partir de leur existence et du lien avec l'extérieur, le sans contenu, qui donne son contenu à la forme, et cela lui apparaît comme son processus. Dans cet extrême, en tant que simple négativité ou pure individualité , l'organique a sa liberté absolue, par laquelle il est indifférent et protégé contre l'être pour autrui et contre la détermination des moments de la forme. Cette liberté est en même temps liberté des moments eux-mêmes, c'est leur possibilité d'apparaître et d'être compris comme existants , et comme pour les choses extérieures, ils sont aussi libérés et indifférents les uns aux autres, parce que la simplicité de cette liberté est l'être ou son substance simple. Ce concept de liberté pure est une seule et même vie, la forme ou l'être d'autres choses pouvant errer dans des jeux aussi divers que variés ; Le type de moulins qu'il entraîne ne fait aucune différence pour ce courant de vie. – Tout d'abord, il convient de noter que ce concept ne doit pas être compris ici, comme auparavant lorsqu'on considère l'intérieur lui-même, dans sa forme de processus ou le développement de ses moments, mais dans sa forme d' intérieur simple , qui représente le côté purement général contre le réel constitue les êtres vivants, ou comme élément d' existence des membres existants de la figure ; car c'est ce que nous regardons ici, et c'est là l'essence de la vie comme simplicité de l'existence. Alors l' être pour autre chose ou la détermination de la formation réelle est inclus dans cette simple universalité, qui est son essence, une détermination générale non sensible également simple, et ne peut être que ce qui s'exprime comme un nombre . C'est le centre de la figure qui relie la vie indéfinie au réel, simple comme la première et déterminé comme la seconde. Et ça, l' intérieur, en tant que nombre, devrait exprimer à sa manière l'extérieur comme la réalité multiforme, le mode de vie, la couleur, etc., en général comme toute la multitude de différences qui se développent dans l'apparence.</p> <p>Les deux faces du tout organique - l'une le dedans , l'autre le dehors , de sorte que chacune a un dedans et un dehors - comparées selon leur dedans mutuel, le dedans du premier était le concept, comme l'inquiétude de l' abstraction ; Mais la seconde possède, en plus de la sienne propre, l'universalité reposante, et en elle aussi la détermination reposante, le nombre. Donc, si le premier, parce que le concept y développe ses aspects, promettait trompeusement des lois par l'apparence de la nécessité du rapport, le second y renonce aussitôt, puisque le nombre se révèle être la détermination d'un côté de ses lois. Car le nombre est précisément la détermination complètement au repos, morte et indifférente, dans laquelle tout mouvement et toute relation a expiré et qui a brisé le pont vers les pulsions vivantes, le mode de vie et l'autre existence sensuelle.</p> <p>Mais cette considération de la forme de l'organique en tant que tel et de l'intérieur comme simple intérieur de la forme n'est en fait plus une considération de l'organique. Car les deux côtés qui devraient être liés ne sont que placés indifféremment l'un par rapport à l'autre, et par là la réflexion en soi, qui constitue l'essence de l'organique, est abolie. Au contraire, la tentative de comparaison de l'intérieur et de l'extérieur est ici transférée à la nature inorganique ; Le concept infini n'est ici que l' essence qui est cachée à l'intérieur ou qui tombe dans la conscience de soi à l'extérieur, et qui n'a plus sa présence objective, comme dans l'organique. Cette relation entre intérieur et extérieur doit donc encore être considérée dans sa sphère réelle.</p> <p>Le premier est cet intérieur de la figure comme simple détail d'une chose inorganique, la gravité spécifique . Il peut être observé comme un être simple aussi bien que la détermination du nombre, dont il est seul capable, ou peut être effectivement trouvé par comparaison d'observations, et il semble ainsi donner un côté de la loi. La forme, la couleur, la dureté, la ténacité et un nombre incalculable d'autres propriétés constitueraient ensemble le côté extérieur et devraient exprimer la détermination de l'intérieur, le nombre, pour que l'un ait sa contrepartie dans l'autre.</p> <p>Parce que la négativité n'est pas conçue ici comme un mouvement du processus, mais comme une unité apaisée ou simplement un être pour soi , elle apparaît plutôt comme ce par quoi la chose résiste au processus et se maintient en elle-même et comme indifférente à lui. Mais parce que ce simple être pour soi est une calme indifférence à l'égard des autres choses, la gravité spécifique apparaît comme une propriété parmi d'autres ; et avec cela cesse toute relation nécessaire avec cette multiplicité, ou toute régularité. – La densité, comme ce simple intérieur, n'a pas la différence en soi , ou bien elle n'a que l'insignifiante ; car c'est précisément leur pure simplicité qui élimine toutes les distinctions essentielles. Il faudrait donc que cette différence insignifiante, la grandeur , ait son image opposée ou l' autre de l'autre côté, qui est la multiplicité des propriétés , en ce sens qu'elle est donc d'abord une différence. Si cette multiplicité elle-même se résume dans la simplicité de l'opposition et se définit comme cohésion , de sorte que celui-ci est l'être pour soi dans l'autre , tout comme la gravité spécifique est l' être pour soi pur , alors cette cohésion est d'abord cette pure détermination posée dans le concept versus cette détermination, et la manière de donner la loi serait celle qui a été considérée plus haut dans le rapport de la sensibilité à l'irritabilité. – Ensuite, en tant que concept d'être-pour-soi dans l'altérité, c'est seulement l' abstraction du côté qui s'oppose à la gravité spécifique et comme telle n'existe pas. Car l'être-pour-soi dans l'altérité est le processus dans lequel l'être-pour-soi inorganique devrait s'exprimer comme une auto-préservation qui le protégerait de l'émergence du processus comme moment d'un produit. Mais cela est exactement contre sa nature, qui n'a pas de but ni d'universalité en soi. Son processus n'est plutôt que le comportement spécifique, la manière dont son être-pour-soi, sa gravité spécifique, s'annule .. Ce comportement déterminé dans lequel sa cohésion consisterait en son véritable concept, mais lui-même et la grandeur définie de sa gravité spécifique sont des concepts complètement indifférents les uns aux autres. Si le type de comportement était complètement ignoré et limité à l'idée de taille, alors on pourrait penser à cette détermination, selon laquelle le poids spécifique le plus élevé, en tant qu'être en soi supérieur, serait plus résistant à l'entrée dans le processus. que cela plus bas. Mais à l'inverse, la liberté d'être pour soi ne se prouve que dans la facilité de s'impliquer dans tout et de se maintenir dans cette diversité. Cette intensité sans extension des relations est une abstraction sans contenu, car l'extension constitue l' existence de l'intensité. Mais l'autoconservation de l'inorganique dans sa relation, comme nous le rappelons, sort de sa nature, puisqu'il n'a pas en soi le principe du mouvement, ou parce que son être n'est pas une négativité et un concept absolus.</p> <p>Si, en revanche, cet autre côté de l'inorganique est considéré non pas comme un processus, mais comme un être au repos, alors c'est la cohésion commune, une simple qualité sensuelle mise de côté contre le moment libéré de l'altérité , qui se trouve à part dans de nombreuses propriétés indifférentes, et sous celles-ci elles-mêmes, comment se produit la gravité spécifique ; L'ensemble des propriétés ensemble constitue alors l'autre côté. Mais dans celui-ci, comme dans les autres, le nombre est la seule déterminité qui non seulement n'exprime pas un rapport et une transition de ces propriétés les unes aux autres, mais qui est essentiellement ceci, non pas pour avoir un rapport nécessaire, mais pour représenter la destruction de toute régularité, parce qu'elle est l'expression d'une certitude comme non essentielle . De sorte qu'une série de corps qui exprime la différence comme une différence numérique de leur densité ne correspond en aucune façon à une série de différences dans les autres propriétés, même si, pour faciliter les choses, on n'en utilise qu'un seul ou plusieurs. ils sont pris. En fait, seul leur groupe dans son ensemble pourrait constituer l'autre côté de ce parallèle. Afin de l'organiser en lui-même et de le combiner en un tout, les déterminations de taille de ces nombreuses propriétés sont disponibles pour l'observation d'une part, mais d'autre part leurs différences apparaissent comme qualitatives. Ce qui devrait maintenant être désigné comme positif ou négatif dans cet tas et s'annulerait, en général la figuration intérieure et l'exposé de la formule, qui serait très composite, appartenaient au concept qui se trouve là comme existant dans le la manière dont les propriétés existent pour être incluses est exclue ; Dans cet être, ni l'un ni l'autre ne montre le caractère d'un négatif par rapport à l'autre, mais l'un est aussi bon que l'autre, et n'indique pas non plus sa place dans l'arrangement du tout. - Dans une série qui se poursuit en différences parallèles - le rapport peut être compris comme croissant des deux côtés à la fois, ou seulement d'un côté et décroissant de l'autre - il ne s'agit que de la dernière expression simple de cet ensemble résumé , qui devrait constituer un côté de la loi contre la gravité spécifique ; mais ce côté-là, comme résultat existant, n'est rien de différent de ce qui a déjà été mentionné, à savoir des propriétés individuelles, comme la cohésion commune, à côté desquelles les autres, y compris la densité, sont présentes indifféremment, et les unes avec les autres avec le même droit, c'est-à-dire avec la même injustice. peut être élu pour représenter l'ensemble de l'autre camp ; l'un comme l'autre ne représenterait que l'essence, en allemand : imaginer , mais pas être la chose elle-même. De sorte que la tentative de trouver des séries de corps qui s'étendent le long du simple parallèle de deux côtés et expriment la nature essentielle des corps selon une loi de ces côtés, doit être considérée comme une pensée qui a sa tâche et le moyen par lequel il faut l'effectuer, il ne le sait pas.</p> <p>La relation entre l'extérieur et l'intérieur sous la forme censée se présenter à l'observation a été immédiatement transférée dans la sphère de l'inorganique ; La détermination qui le dessine ici peut maintenant être précisée plus en détail, et de là surgit une autre forme et une autre relation de cette relation. Dans le cas de l'organique, ce qui semble offrir la possibilité d'une telle comparaison de l'intérieur et de l'extérieur avec l'inorganique disparaît. L'intérieur inorganique est un intérieur simple qui se présente à la perception comme une propriété existante ; Sa détermination est donc essentiellement la taille, et en tant que propriété existante, elle apparaît indifférente aux propriétés externes ou aux nombreuses autres propriétés sensorielles. Cependant, l'être pour soi du vivant organique ne se tient pas du côté de son apparence extérieure, mais possède plutôt le principe d' altérité en lui-même si l'on définit l'être pour soi comme une relation simple et auto-préservée. pour lui-même , c'est comme ça. Son altérité est la simple négativité , et l'unité organique est l'unité du même auto-référencement et de la pure négativité. En tant qu'unité, cette unité est l'intérieur de l'organique ; C'est en soi général, ou c'est un genre . Mais la liberté de l'espèce par rapport à sa réalité est différente de la liberté de la gravité spécifique par rapport à la forme. Celui de ces derniers est une liberté existante , ou qu'elle se tient à l'écart comme une propriété particulière. Mais parce qu'elle est liberté existante , elle n'est aussi qu'une détermination qui appartient essentiellement à cette forme, ou par laquelle elle est un être déterminé en tant qu'être . Mais la liberté de l'espèce est générale et indifférente à cette forme ou à sa réalité. La détermination qui appartient à l' être pour soi de l'inorganique comme tel relève donc de l'être pour soi organique ; comment, dans l'inorganique, il ne relève que de l' être de l'inorganique ; Même si elle n'est présente en cela en même temps que comme propriété , la dignité de l' essence lui appartient toujours parce que, comme simple négatif, elle s'oppose au Dasein comme étant pour autre chose ; et ce simple négatif est, dans sa détermination individuelle ultime, un nombre. Mais l'organique est une individualité, qui elle-même est pure négativité et donc détermination fixe du nombre, indifférente à l'être.vient, détruit en lui-même. Dans la mesure où il contient le moment d'être indifférent et, en lui, le nombre, il ne peut donc être considéré que comme un jeu sur lui, mais non comme l'essence de sa vivacité.</p> <p>Mais si la négativité pure, principe du processus, ne tombe pas en dehors de l'organique, et ne l'a donc pas comme détermination dans son essence , mais que l'individualité elle-même est universelle en soi, alors cette pure individualité n'est pas en elle. développé en lui comme abstrait ou général et réel. Cette expression se produit plutôt en dehors de cette généralité, qui retombe dans l'intériorité , et entre la réalité ou la forme, c'est-à-dire l'individualité en développement, et entre le général organique, ou le genre, le général déterminé , l' espèce . L'existence à laquelle parvient la négativité du général ou du genre n'est que le mouvement développé d'un processus qui parcourt les parties de la forme existante . Si l'espèce avait en elle les parties différenciées comme une simplicité reposante, et si sa simple négativité en tant que telle était en même temps un mouvement, qui parcourait des parties également simples qui leur sont immédiatement générales et qui, comme telles, étaient ici réelles, alors l'espèce organique serait la conscience. Mais telle qu'elle est, la détermination simple , en tant que détermination de l'espèce, y est présente d'une manière dépourvue d'esprit ; C'est de là que commence la réalité, ou ce qui entre dans la réalité, ce n'est pas l'espèce en tant que telle, c'est-à-dire pas du tout la pensée. Celle-ci, en tant qu'entité véritablement organique, n'est représentée que par un seul représentant. Mais ce nombre, qui semble désigner le passage de l'espèce à la forme individuelle et donner à l'observation les deux faces de la nécessité, tantôt comme simple détermination, tantôt comme forme développée née de la diversité, cela dénote plutôt l'indifférence et la liberté du général et de l'individu l'un envers l'autre, que l'espèce abandonne à la différence insubstantielle de taille, mais elle-même, en tant qu'être vivant, se révèle tout aussi libre de cette différence. La véritable universalité, telle qu'elle a été déterminée, n'est ici qu'une essence intérieure ; en tant que détermination de l' espèce, elle est une universalité formelle, et contrairement à cela, cette véritable universalité prend le parti de l'individualité, qui est donc une entité vivante et, par son intérieur, outrepasse sa détermination en tant qu'espèce . Mais cette individualité n'est pas en même temps un individu général, c'est-à-dire dans lequel l'universalité aurait aussi une réalité extérieure, mais celle-ci échappe au vivant organiquement. Mais cet individu en général , l'aime directementl'individu des formations naturelles n'est pas la conscience elle-même ; Son existence en tant qu'individu vivant et organique ne devrait pas nécessairement lui échapper si telle était la situation.</p> <p>Nous voyons donc une conclusion dans laquelle l'un des extrêmes est la vie générale en tant que général ou en tant qu'espèce, mais l'autre extrême est la même en tant qu'individu ou en tant qu'individu général ; Mais le milieu est composé des deux, l'un semble s'y envoyer comme une certaine généralité ou comme une espèce , et l'autre comme un particulier actuel ou individuel . – Et puisque cette conclusion appartient au côté de la formation , elle inclut également ce que l'on appelle la nature inorganique.</p> <p>Puisque la vie générale, en tant qu'essence simple de l'espèce , développe les différences du concept de son côté et doit les représenter comme une série de déterminations simples, il s'agit d'un système de différences indifféremment posées, ou d'une série de nombres . Si auparavant l'organique dans la forme de l'individu s'opposait à cette différence insubstantielle, qui n'exprime ni ne contient sa nature vivante - et si c'est exactement cela qu'il faut dire de l'inorganique après que toute son existence s'est développée dans la multitude de ses propriétés C'est ainsi que c'est désormais l'individu en général qui doit être considéré non seulement comme libre de toute division de l'espèce, mais aussi comme sa puissance. Le genre, qui est divisé en espèces selon la détermination générale du nombre, ou qui peut prendre comme base de division des déterminations individuelles de son existence, par exemple la figure, la couleur, etc., subit la violence de la part du genre. l'individu général, la terre , dans cette affaire tranquille , qui, comme la négativité générale, les différences telles qu'elles les ont en elle-même et dont la nature, à cause de la substance à laquelle elles appartiennent, est différente de la nature de celles-ci, s'oppose à la systématisation. du genre pourrait. Cette activité de l'espèce devient une affaire très limitée, qu'elle n'est autorisée à exercer qu'au sein de ces éléments puissants, et qui est partout interrompue, incomplète et freinée par leur violence effrénée.</p> <p>Il s'ensuit que seule la raison, comme la vie en général, peut devenir l'observation de l'existence formée , qui, cependant, dans sa différenciation, n'a pas réellement d'ordre ni de structure raisonnable en elle-même et n'est pas un système de formes fondé en soi. – Si, à la fin de la formation organique, le milieu dans lequel tombent l'espèce et sa réalité en tant qu'individualité unique, avait en lui-même les extrêmes de l'universalité intérieure et de l'individualité générale, alors ce milieu aurait l'expression et la nature de le mouvement de sa réalité a une généralité et est un développement auto-systématisé. Ainsi la conscience , entre l'esprit général et entre son individualité ou la conscience sensorielle, a en son centre le système des formations de conscience, comme vie de l'esprit qui s'organise en un tout - le système qui est ici considéré et qui est monde. l'histoire a une existence objective. Mais la nature organique n'a pas d'histoire ; Elle tombe de sa vie universelle, directement dans l'individualité de l'existence, et les moments de simple détermination et de vivacité individuelle unis dans cette réalité ne produisent le devenir que comme le mouvement accidentel dans lequel chacun est actif dans sa propre partie et ce Tout est préservé. mais cette activité n'est limitée qu'à son point en soi, parce que le tout n'y est pas présent, et celui-ci n'est pas présent en lui parce qu'il n'est pas ici comme un tout pour soi .</p> <p>Outre le fait que la raison qui observe la nature organique ne parvient qu'à l'intuition d'elle-même comme vie générale, elle ne peut examiner son développement et sa réalisation que selon des systèmes très généralement différenciés, dont la détermination, leur essence, ne sont pas dans le organique en tant que tel, mais réside dans l'individu général ; et parmi ces différences de la terre selon les classements que tente l'espèce.</p> <p>Puisque dans sa réalité l' universalité de la vie organique se laisse tomber directement dans l'extrême de l'individualité sans la véritable médiation qui existe pour elle-même , la conscience observatrice n'a devant elle que l'opinion ; et si la raison peut avoir le vain intérêt d'observer cette opinion, elle se borne à décrire et à raconter les opinions et les idées de la nature. Cette liberté d'opinion insensée présentera en effet partout des débuts de lois, des traces de nécessité, des allusions à l'ordre et à la séquence, des rapports drôles et apparents. Mais dans la relation entre l'organique et les différences existantes de l'inorganique, des éléments, des zones et des climats, l'observation n'a pas une grande influence en termes de loi et de nécessité . Ainsi de l'autre côté, où l'individualité n'a pas le sens de la terre, mais de l' unité immanente à la vie organique , mais celle-ci avec le général en unité immédiate constitue l'espèce, mais dont l'unité simple n'est donc déterminée que comme un nombre. , et laisse donc libre l'apparence qualitative - l'observation ne peut aller au-delà des remarques polies, des relations intéressantes et des accommodements amicaux au concept . Mais les remarques aimables ne sont pas une connaissance de nécessité , les relations intéressantes restent avec l' intérêt , mais l'intérêt n'est plus que l'opinion de la raison ; et la bonté de l'individu, avec laquelle elle fait allusion à un concept, est une bonté enfantine, qui est puérile si elle veut ou doit compter pour quelque chose en soi.</p> <p>Lire la suite :</p> <p><a href="https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap6.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap6.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr</a></p> <p><a href="https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap7.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap7.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr</a></p> <p><a href="https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap8.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/deutsch/philosophie/hegel/phaenom/kap8.htm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=fr</a></p></div> Karl Marx, Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7758 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7758 2024-12-24T04:27:05Z text/html en Robert Paris English Karl Marx Philosophie Hegel <p>Karl Marx - Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right <br class='autobr' /> Introduction <br class='autobr' /> For Germany, the criticism of religion has been essentially completed, and the criticism of religion is the prerequisite of all criticism. <br class='autobr' /> The profane existence of error is compromised as soon as its heavenly oratio pro aris et focis [“speech for the altars and hearths,” i.e., for God and country] has been refuted. Man, who has found only the reflection of himself in the fantastic reality of heaven, where he sought a (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique88" rel="directory">000- ENGLISH - MATTER AND REVOLUTION</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot1" rel="tag">English</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot30" rel="tag">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot149" rel="tag">Philosophie</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">Karl Marx - Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right</h2> <p>Introduction</p> <p>For Germany, the criticism of religion has been essentially completed, and the criticism of religion is the prerequisite of all criticism.</p> <p>The profane existence of error is compromised as soon as its heavenly oratio pro aris et focis [“speech for the altars and hearths,” i.e., for God and country] has been refuted. Man, who has found only the reflection of himself in the fantastic reality of heaven, where he sought a superman, will no longer feel disposed to find the mere appearance of himself, the non-man [Unmensch], where he seeks and must seek his true reality.</p> <p>The foundation of irreligious criticism is: Man makes religion, religion does not make man. Religion is, indeed, the self-consciousness and self-esteem of man who has either not yet won through to himself, or has already lost himself again. But man is no abstract being squatting outside the world. Man is the world of man – state, society. This state and this society produce religion, which is an inverted consciousness of the world, because they are an inverted world. Religion is the general theory of this world, its encyclopaedic compendium, its logic in popular form, its spiritual point d'honneur, its enthusiasm, its moral sanction, its solemn complement, and its universal basis of consolation and justification. It is the fantastic realization of the human essence since the human essence has not acquired any true reality. The struggle against religion is, therefore, indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual aroma is religion.</p> <p>Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.</p> <p>The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions. The criticism of religion is, therefore, in embryo, the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo.</p> <p>Criticism has plucked the imaginary flowers on the chain not in order that man shall continue to bear that chain without fantasy or consolation, but so that he shall throw off the chain and pluck the living flower. The criticism of religion disillusions man, so that he will think, act, and fashion his reality like a man who has discarded his illusions and regained his senses, so that he will move around himself as his own true Sun. Religion is only the illusory Sun which revolves around man as long as he does not revolve around himself.</p> <p>It is, therefore, the task of history, once the other-world of truth has vanished, to establish the truth of this world. It is the immediate task of philosophy, which is in the service of history, to unmask self-estrangement in its unholy forms once the holy form of human self-estrangement has been unmasked. Thus, the criticism of Heaven turns into the criticism of Earth, the criticism of religion into the criticism of law, and the criticism of theology into the criticism of politics.</p> <p>The following exposition [a full-scale critical study of Hegel's Philosophy of Right was supposed to follow this introduction] – a contribution to this undertaking – concerns itself not directly with the original but with a copy, with the German philosophy of the state and of law. The only reason for this is that it is concerned with Germany.</p> <p>If we were to begin with the German status quo itself, the result – even if we were to do it in the only appropriate way, i.e., negatively – would still be an anachronism. Even the negation of our present political situation is a dusty fact in the historical junk room of modern nations. If I negate powdered pigtails, I am still left with unpowdered pigtails. If I negate the situation in Germany in 1843, then according to the French calendar I have barely reached 1789, much less the vital centre of our present age.</p> <p>Indeed, German history prides itself on having travelled a road which no other nation in the whole of history has ever travelled before, or ever will again. We have shared the restorations of modern nations without ever having shared their revolutions. We have been restored, firstly, because other nations dared to make revolutions, and, secondly, because other nations suffered counter-revolutions; on the one hand, because our masters were afraid, and, on the other, because they were not afraid. With our shepherds to the fore, we only once kept company with freedom, on the day of its internment.</p> <p>One school of thought that legitimizes the infamy of today with the infamy of yesterday, a school that stigmatizes every cry of the serf against the knout as mere rebelliousness once the knout has aged a little and acquired a hereditary significance and a history, a school to which history shows nothing but its a posteriori, as did the God of Israel to his servant Moses, the historical school of law – this school would have invented German history were it not itself an invention of that history. A Shylock, but a cringing Shylock, that swears by its bond, its historical bond, its Christian-Germanic bond, for every pound of flesh cut from the heart of the people.</p> <p>Good-natured enthusiasts, Germanomaniacs by extraction and free-thinkers by reflexion, on the contrary, seek our history of freedom beyond our history in the ancient Teutonic forests. But, what difference is there between the history of our freedom and the history of the boar's freedom if it can be found only in the forests? Besides, it is common knowledge that the forest echoes back what you shout into it. So peace to the ancient Teutonic forests!</p> <p>War on the German state of affairs! By all means! They are below the level of history, they are beneath any criticism, but they are still an object of criticism like the criminal who is below the level of humanity but still an object for the executioner. In the struggle against that state of affairs, criticism is no passion of the head, it is the head of passion. It is not a lancet, it is a weapon. Its object is its enemy, which it wants not to refute but to exterminate. For the spirit of that state of affairs is refuted. In itself, it is no object worthy of thought, it is an existence which is as despicable as it is despised. Criticism does not need to make things clear to itself as regards this object, for it has already settled accounts with it. It no longer assumes the quality of an end-in-itself, but only of a means. Its essential pathos is indignation, its essential work is denunciation.</p> <p>It is a case of describing the dull reciprocal pressure of all social spheres one on another, a general inactive ill-humor, a limitedness which recognizes itself as much as it mistakes itself, within the frame of government system which, living on the preservation of all wretchedness, is itself nothing but wretchedness in office.</p> <p>What a sight! This infinitely proceeding division of society into the most manifold races opposed to one another by petty antipathies, uneasy consciences, and brutal mediocrity, and which, precisely because of their reciprocal ambiguous and distrustful attitude, are all, without exception although with various formalities, treated by their rulers as conceded existences. And they must recognize and acknowledge as a concession of heaven the very fact that they are mastered, ruled, possessed! And, on the other side, are the rulers themselves, whose greatness is in inverse proportion to their number!</p> <p>Criticism dealing with this content is criticism in a hand-to-hand fight, and in such a fight the point is not whether the opponent is a noble, equal, interesting opponent, the point is to strike him. The point is not to let the Germans have a minute for self-deception and resignation. The actual pressure must be made more pressing by adding to it consciousness of pressure, the shame must be made more shameful by publicizing it. Every sphere of German society must be shown as the partie honteuse of German society: these petrified relations must be forced to dance by singing their own tune to them! The people must be taught to be terrified at itself in order to give it courage. This will be fulfilling an imperative need of the German nation, and the needs of the nations are in themselves the ultimate reason for their satisfaction.</p> <p>This struggle against the limited content of the German status quo cannot be without interest even for the modern nations, for the German status quo is the open completion of the ancien régime and the ancien régime is the concealed deficiency of the modern state. The struggle against the German political present is the struggle against the past of the modern nations, and they are still burdened with reminders of that past. It is instructive for them to see the ancien régime, which has been through its tragedy with them, playing its comedy as a German revenant. Tragic indeed was the pre-existing power of the world, and freedom, on the other hand, was a personal notion; in short, as long as it believed and had to believe in its own justification. As long as the ancien régime, as an existing world order, struggled against a world that was only coming into being, there was on its side a historical error, not a personal one. That is why its downfall was tragic.</p> <p>On the other hand, the present German regime, an anachronism, a flagrant contradiction of generally recognized axioms, the nothingness of the ancien régime exhibited to the world, only imagines that it believes in itself and demands that the world should imagine the same thing. If it believed in its own essence, would it try to hide that essence under the semblance of an alien essence and seek refuge in hypocrisy and sophism? The modern ancien régime is rather only the comedian of a world order whose true heroes are dead. History is thorough and goes through many phases when carrying an old form to the grave. The last phases of a world-historical form is its comedy. The gods of Greece, already tragically wounded to death in Aeschylus's tragedy Prometheus Bound, had to re-die a comic death in Lucian's Dialogues. Why this course of history? So that humanity should part with its past cheerfully. This cheerful historical destiny is what we vindicate for the political authorities of Germany.</p> <p>Meanwhile, once modern politico-social reality itself is subjected to criticism, once criticism rises to truly human problems, it finds itself outside the German status quo, or else it would reach out for its object below its object. An example. The relation of industry, of the world of wealth generally, to the political world is one of the major problems of modern times. In what form is this problem beginning to engage the attention of the Germans? In the form of protective duties, of the prohibitive system, of national economy. Germanomania has passed out of man into matter, and thus one morning our cotton barons and iron heroes saw themselves turned into patriots. People are, therefore, beginning in Germany to acknowledge the sovereignty of monopoly on the inside through lending it sovereignty on the outside. People are, therefore, now about to begin, in Germany, what people in France and England are about to end. The old corrupt condition against which these countries are revolting in theory, and which they only bear as one bears chains, is greeted in Germany as the dawn of a beautiful future which still hardly dares to pass from crafty theory to the most ruthless practice. Whereas the problem in France and England is: Political economy, or the rule of society over wealth; in Germany, it is: National economy, or the mastery of private property over nationality. In France and England, then, it is a case of abolishing monopoly that has proceeded to its last consequences; in Germany, it is a case of proceeding to the last consequences of monopoly. There it is a case of solution, here as yet a case of collision. This is an adequate example of the German form of modern problems, an example of how our history, like a clumsy recruit, still has to do extra drill on things that are old and hackneyed in history.</p> <p>If, therefore, the whole German development did not exceed the German political development, a German could at the most have the share in the problems-of-the-present that a Russian has. But, when the separate individual is not bound by the limitations of the nation, the nation as a whole is still less liberated by the liberation of one individual. The fact that Greece had a Scythian among its philosophers did not help the Scythians to make a single step towards Greek culture. [An allusion to Anacharsis.]</p> <p>Luckily, we Germans are not Scythians.</p> <p>As the ancient peoples went through their pre-history in imagination, in mythology, so we Germans have gone through our post-history in thought, in philosophy. We are philosophical contemporaries of the present without being its historical contemporaries. German philosophy is the ideal prolongation of German history. If therefore, instead of the oeuvres incompletes of our real history, we criticize the oeuvres posthumes of our ideal history, philosophy, our criticism is in the midst of the questions of which the present says: that is the question. What, in progressive nations, is a practical break with modern state conditions, is, in Germany, where even those conditions do not yet exist, at first a critical break with the philosophical reflexion of those conditions.</p> <p>German philosophy of right and state is the only German history which is al pari [“on a level”] with the official modern present. The German nation must therefore join this, its dream-history, to its present conditions and subject to criticism not only these existing conditions, but at the same time their abstract continuation. Its future cannot be limited either to the immediate negation of its real conditions of state and right, or to the immediate implementation of its ideal state and right conditions, for it has the immediate negation of its real conditions in its ideal conditions, and it has almost outlived the immediate implementation of its ideal conditions in the contemplation of neighboring nations. Hence, it is with good reason that the practical political party in Germany demands the negation of philosophy.</p> <p>It is wrong, not in its demand but in stopping at the demand, which it neither seriously implements nor can implement. It believes that it implements that negation by turning its back to philosophy and its head away from it and muttering a few trite and angry phrases about it. Owing to the limitation of its outlook, it does not include philosophy in the circle of German reality or it even fancies it is beneath German practice and the theories that serve it. You demand that real life embryos be made the starting-point, but you forget that the real life embryo of the German nation has grown so far only inside its cranium. In a word – You cannot abolish [aufheben] philosophy without making it a reality.</p> <p>The same mistake, but with the factors reversed, was made by the theoretical party originating from philosophy.</p> <p>In the present struggle it saw only the critical struggle of philosophy against the German world; it did not give a thought to the fact that philosophy up to the present itself belongs to this world and is its completion, although an ideal one. Critical towards its counterpart, it was uncritical towards itself when, proceeding from the premises of philosophy, it either stopped at the results given by philosophy or passed off demands and results from somewhere else as immediate demands and results of philosophy – although these, provided they are justified, can be obtained only by the negation of philosophy up to the present, of philosophy as such. We reserve ourselves the right to a more detailed description of this section: It thought it could make philosophy a reality without abolishing [aufzuheben] it.</p> <p>The criticism of the German philosophy of state and right, which attained its most consistent, richest, and last formulation through Hegel, is both a critical analysis of the modern state and of the reality connected with it, and the resolute negation of the whole manner of the German consciousness in politics and right as practiced hereto, the most distinguished, most universal expression of which, raised to the level of science, is the speculative philosophy of right itself. If the speculative philosophy of right, that abstract extravagant thinking on the modern state, the reality of which remains a thing of the beyond, if only beyond the Rhine, was possible only in Germany, inversely the German thought-image of the modern state which makes abstraction of real man was possible only because and insofar as the modern state itself makes abstraction of real man, or satisfies the whole of man only in imagination. In politics, the Germans thought what other nations did. Germany was their theoretical conscience. The abstraction and presumption of its thought was always in step with the one-sidedness and lowliness of its reality. If, therefore, the status quo of German statehood expresses the completion of the ancien régime, the completion of the thorn in the flesh of the modern state, the status quo of German state science expresses the incompletion of the modern state, the defectiveness of its flesh itself.</p> <p>Already as the resolute opponent of the previous form of German political consciousness the criticism of speculative philosophy of right strays, not into itself, but into problems which there is only one means of solving – practice.</p> <p>It is asked: can Germany attain a practice à la hauteur des principes – i.e., a revolution which will raise it not only to the official level of modern nations, but to the height of humanity which will be the near future of those nations?</p> <p>The weapon of criticism cannot, of course, replace criticism of the weapon, material force must be overthrown by material force; but theory also becomes a material force as soon as it has gripped the masses. Theory is capable of gripping the masses as soon as it demonstrates ad hominem, and it demonstrates ad hominem as soon as it becomes radical. To be radical is to grasp the root of the matter. But, for man, the root is man himself. The evident proof of the radicalism of German theory, and hence of its practical energy, is that is proceeds from a resolute positive abolition of religion. The criticism of religion ends with the teaching that man is the highest essence for man – hence, with the categoric imperative to overthrow all relations in which man is a debased, enslaved, abandoned, despicable essence, relations which cannot be better described than by the cry of a Frenchman when it was planned to introduce a tax on dogs: Poor dogs! They want to treat you as human beings!</p> <p>Even historically, theoretical emancipation has specific practical significance for Germany. For Germany's revolutionary past is theoretical, it is the Reformation. As the revolution then began in the brain of the monk, so now it begins in the brain of the philosopher.</p> <p>Luther, we grant, overcame bondage out of devotion by replacing it by bondage out of conviction. He shattered faith in authority because he restored the authority of faith. He turned priests into laymen because he turned laymen into priests. He freed man from outer religiosity because he made religiosity the inner man. He freed the body from chains because he enchained the heart.</p> <p>But, if Protestantism was not the true solution of the problem, it was at least the true setting of it. It was no longer a case of the layman's struggle against the priest outside himself but of his struggle against his own priest inside himself, his priestly nature. And if the Protestant transformation of the German layman into priests emancipated the lay popes, the princes, with the whole of their priestly clique, the privileged and philistines, the philosophical transformation of priestly Germans into men will emancipate the people. But, secularization will not stop at the confiscation of church estates set in motion mainly by hypocritical Prussia any more than emancipation stops at princes. The Peasant War, the most radical fact of German history, came to grief because of theology. Today, when theology itself has come to grief, the most unfree fact of German history, our status quo, will be shattered against philosophy. On the eve of the Reformation, official Germany was the most unconditional slave of Rome. On the eve of its revolution, it is the unconditional slave of less than Rome, of Prussia and Austria, of country junkers and philistines.</p> <p>Meanwhile, a major difficulty seems to stand in the way of a radical German revolution.</p> <p>For revolutions require a passive element, a material basis. Theory is fulfilled in a people only insofar as it is the fulfilment of the needs of that people. But will the monstrous discrepancy between the demands of German thought and the answers of German reality find a corresponding discrepancy between civil society and the state, and between civil society and itself? Will the theoretical needs be immediate practical needs? It is not enough for thought to strive for realization, reality must itself strive towards thought.</p> <p>But Germany did not rise to the intermediary stage of political emancipation at the same time as the modern nations. It has not yet reached in practice the stages which it has surpassed in theory. How can it do a somersault, not only over its own limitations, but at the same time over the limitations of the modern nations, over limitations which it must in reality feel and strive for as for emancipation from its real limitations? Only a revolution of radical needs can be a radical revolution and it seems that precisely the preconditions and ground for such needs are lacking.</p> <p>If Germany has accompanied the development of the modern nations only with the abstract activity of thought without taking an effective share in the real struggle of that development, it has, on the other hand, shared the sufferings of that development, without sharing in its enjoyment, or its partial satisfaction. To the abstract activity on the one hand corresponds the abstract suffering on the other. That is why Germany will one day find itself on the level of European decadence before ever having been on the level of European emancipation. It will be comparable to a fetish worshipper pining away with the diseases of Christianity.</p> <p>If we now consider the German governments, we find that because of the circumstances of the time, because of Germany's condition, because of the standpoint of German education, and, finally, under the impulse of its own fortunate instinct, they are driven to combine the civilized shortcomings of the modern state world, the advantages of which we do not enjoy, with the barbaric deficiencies of the ancien régime, which we enjoy in full; hence, Germany must share more and more, if not in the reasonableness, at least in the unreasonableness of those state formations which are beyond the bounds of its status quo. Is there in the world, for example, a country which shares so naively in all the illusions of constitutional statehood without sharing in its realities as so-called constitutional Germany? And was it not perforce the notion of a German government to combine the tortures of censorship with the tortures of the French September laws [1835 anti-press laws] which provide for freedom of the press? As you could find the gods of all nations in the Roman Pantheon, so you will find in the Germans' Holy Roman Empire all the sins of all state forms. That this eclecticism will reach a so far unprecedented height is guaranteed in particular by the political-aesthetic gourmanderie of a German king [Frederick William IV] who intended to play all the roles of monarchy, whether feudal or democratic, if not in the person of the people, at least in his own person, and if not for the people, at least for himself. Germany, as the deficiency of the political present constituted a world of its own, will not be able to throw down the specific German limitations without throwing down the general limitation of the political present.</p> <p>It is not the radical revolution, not the general human emancipation which is a utopian dream for Germany, but rather the partial, the merely political revolution, the revolution which leaves the pillars of the house standing. On what is a partial, a merely political revolution based? On part of civil society emancipating itself and attaining general domination; on a definite class, proceeding from its particular situation; undertaking the general emancipation of society. This class emancipates the whole of society, but only provided the whole of society is in the same situation as this class – e.g., possesses money and education or can acquire them at will.</p> <p>No class of civil society can play this role without arousing a moment of enthusiasm in itself and in the masses, a moment in which it fraternizes and merges with society in general, becomes confused with it and is perceived and acknowledged as its general representative, a moment in which its claims and rights are truly the claims and rights of society itself, a moment in which it is truly the social head and the social heart. Only in the name of the general rights of society can a particular class vindicate for itself general domination. For the storming of this emancipatory position, and hence for the political exploitation of all sections of society in the interests of its own section, revolutionary energy and spiritual self-feeling alone are not sufficient. For the revolution of a nation, and the emancipation of a particular class of civil society to coincide, for one estate to be acknowledged as the estate of the whole society, all the defects of society must conversely be concentrated in another class, a particular estate must be the estate of the general stumbling-block, the incorporation of the general limitation, a particular social sphere must be recognized as the notorious crime of the whole of society, so that liberation from that sphere appears as general self-liberation. For one estate to be par excellence the estate of liberation, another estate must conversely be the obvious estate of oppression. The negative general significance of the French nobility and the French clergy determined the positive general significance of the nearest neighboring and opposed class of the bourgeoisie.</p> <p>But no particular class in Germany has the constituency, the penetration, the courage, or the ruthlessness that could mark it out as the negative representative of society. No more has any estate the breadth of soul that identifies itself, even for a moment, with the soul of the nation, the geniality that inspires material might to political violence, or that revolutionary daring which flings at the adversary the defiant words: I am nothing but I must be everything. The main stem of German morals and honesty, of the classes as well as of individuals, is rather that modest egoism which asserts its limitedness and allows it to be asserted against itself. The relation of the various sections of German society is therefore not dramatic but epic. Each of them begins to be aware of itself and begins to camp beside the others with all its particular claims not as soon as it is oppressed, but as soon as the circumstances of the time, without the section's own participation, creates a social substratum on which it can in turn exert pressure. Even the moral self-feeling of the German middle class rests only on the consciousness that it is the common representative of the philistine mediocrity of all the other classes. It is therefore not only the German kings who accede to the throne mal à propos, it is every section of civil society which goes through a defeat before it celebrates victory and develops its own limitations before it overcomes the limitations facing it, asserts its narrow-hearted essence before it has been able to assert its magnanimous essence; thus the very opportunity of a great role has passed away before it is to hand, and every class, once it begins the struggle against the class opposed to it, is involved in the struggle against the class below it. Hence, the higher nobility is struggling against the monarchy, the bureaucrat against the nobility, and the bourgeois against them all, while the proletariat is already beginning to find itself struggling against the bourgeoisie. The middle class hardly dares to grasp the thought of emancipation from its own standpoint when the development of the social conditions and the progress of political theory already declare that standpoint antiquated or at least problematic.</p> <p>In France, it is enough for somebody to be something for him to want to be everything; in Germany, nobody can be anything if he is not prepared to renounce everything. In France, partial emancipation is the basis of universal emancipation; in Germany, universal emancipation is the conditio sine qua non of any partial emancipation. In France, it is the reality of gradual liberation that must give birth to complete freedom, in Germany, the impossibility of gradual liberation. In France, every class of the nation is a political idealist and becomes aware of itself at first not as a particular class but as a representative of social requirements generally. The role of emancipator therefore passes in dramatic motion to the various classes of the French nation one after the other until it finally comes to the class which implements social freedom no longer with the provision of certain conditions lying outside man and yet created by human society, but rather organizes all conditions of human existence on the premises of social freedom. On the contrary, in Germany, where practical life is as spiritless as spiritual life is unpractical, no class in civil society has any need or capacity for general emancipation until it is forced by its immediate condition, by material necessity, by its very chains.</p> <p>Where, then, is the positive possibility of a German emancipation?</p> <p>Answer: In the formulation of a class with radical chains, a class of civil society which is not a class of civil society, an estate which is the dissolution of all estates, a sphere which has a universal character by its universal suffering and claims no particular right because no particular wrong, but wrong generally, is perpetuated against it; which can invoke no historical, but only human, title; which does not stand in any one-sided antithesis to the consequences but in all-round antithesis to the premises of German statehood; a sphere, finally, which cannot emancipate itself without emancipating itself from all other spheres of society and thereby emancipating all other spheres of society, which, in a word, is the complete loss of man and hence can win itself only through the complete re-winning of man. This dissolution of society as a particular estate is the proletariat.</p> <p>The proletariat is beginning to appear in Germany as a result of the rising industrial movement. For, it is not the naturally arising poor but the artificially impoverished, not the human masses mechanically oppressed by the gravity of society, but the masses resulting from the drastic dissolution of society, mainly of the middle estate, that form the proletariat, although, as is easily understood, the naturally arising poor and the Christian-Germanic serfs gradually join its ranks.</p> <p>By heralding the dissolution of the hereto existing world order, the proletariat merely proclaims the secret of its own existence, for it is the factual dissolution of that world order. By demanding the negation of private property, the proletariat merely raises to the rank of a principle of society what society has raised to the rank of its principle, what is already incorporated in it as the negative result of society without its own participation. The proletarian then finds himself possessing the same right in regard to the world which is coming into being as the German king in regard to the world which has come into being when he calls the people his people, as he calls the horse his horse. By declaring the people his private property, the king merely proclaims that the owner of property is king.</p> <p>As philosophy finds its material weapon in the proletariat, so the proletariat finds its spiritual weapon in philosophy. And once the lightning of thought has squarely struck this ingenuous soil of the people, the emancipation of the Germans into men will be accomplished.</p> <p>Let us sum up the result:</p> <p>The only liberation of Germany which is practically possible is liberation from the point of view of that theory which declares man to be the supreme being for man. Germany can emancipate itself from the Middle Ages only if it emancipates itself at the same time from the partial victories over the Middle Ages. In Germany, no form of bondage can be broken without breaking all forms of bondage. Germany, which is renowned for its thoroughness, cannot make a revolution unless it is a thorough one. The emancipation of the German is the emancipation of man. The head of this emancipation is philosophy, its heart the proletariat. Philosophy cannot realize itself without the transcendence [Aufhebung] of the proletariat, and the proletariat cannot transcend itself without the realization [Verwirklichung] of philosophy.</p> <p>When all the inner conditions are met, the day of the German resurrection will be heralded by the crowing of the cock of Gaul.</p> <p> Introduction (1844)</p> <p>Part 1: The State §§ 261 - 271</p> <p>a. Private Right vis-à-vis the State</p> <p>b. The State as Manifestation of Idea or product of man</p> <p>c. The Political Sentiment</p> <p>d. Analysis</p> <p>Part 2. The Constitution §§ 272 - 286</p> <p>a. The Crown</p> <p>b. Subjects and Predicates</p> <p>c. Democracy</p> <p>d. Résumé of Hegel's development of the Crown</p> <p>Part 3. The Executive §§ 287 - 297</p> <p>a. The Bureaucracy</p> <p>b. Separation of the state and civil society</p> <p>c. Executive 'subsuming' the individual and particular under the universal</p> <p>Part 4: The Legislature §§ 298 - 303</p> <p>a. The Legislature</p> <p>b. The Estates</p> <p>c. Hegel presents what is as the essence of the state.</p> <p>d. In Middle Ages the classes of civil society and the political classes were identical.</p> <p>Part 5: The Estates §§ 304 - 307</p> <p>a. Hegel deduces birthright from the Absolute Idea</p> <p>b. Hegel's Mediations</p> <p>c. Real extremes would be Pole and non-Pole</p> <p>d. The Agricultural Class</p> <p>e. “The state is the actuality of the ethical Idea”</p> <p>f. The Romans and Private Property</p> <p>Part 6: Civil Society and the Estates §§ 308 - 313</p> <p>a. Civil Society and the Estates</p> <p>b. Individuals conceived as Abstractions</p> <p>c. Hegel does not allow society to become the actually determining thing</p> <p>Part 1: The State §§ 261 - 271</p> <p>(Marx's commentary on § 257 - 60 have been lost)</p> <p>§ 261. In contrast with the spheres of private rights and private welfare (the family and civil society), the state is from one point of view an external necessity and their higher authority; its nature is such that their laws and interests are subordinate to it and dependent on it. On the other hand, however, it is the end immanent within them, and its strength lies in the unity of its own universal end and aim with the particular interest of individuals, in the fact that individuals have duties to the state in proportion as they have rights against it (see § 155).</p> <p>The foregoing paragraph advises us that concrete freedom consists in the identity (as it is supposed to be, two-sided) of the system of particular interest (the family and civil society) with the system of general interest (the state). The relation of these spheres must now be determined more precisely.</p> <p>From one point of view the state is contrasted with the spheres of family and civil society as an external necessity, an authority, relative to which the laws and interests of family and civil society are subordinate and dependent. That the state, in contrast with the family and civil society, is an external necessity was implied partly in the category of ‘transition' (Übergangs) and partly in the conscious relationship of the family and civil society to the state. Further, subordination under the state corresponds perfectly with the relation of external necessity. But what Hegel understands by ‘dependence' is shown by the following sentence from the Remark to this paragraph:</p> <p>a. Private Right vis-à-vis the State</p> <p>§ 261.... It was Montesquieu above all who, in his famous work L'Esprit des Lois, kept in sight and tried to work out in detail both the thought of the dependence of laws in particular, laws concerning the rights of persons - on the specific character of the state, and also the philosophic notion of always treating the part in its relation to the whole.</p> <p>Thus Hegel is speaking here of internal dependence, or the essential determination of private rights, etc., by the state. At the same time, however, he subsumes this dependence under the relationship of external necessity and opposes it, as another aspect, to that relationship wherein family and civil society relate to the state as to their immanent end.</p> <p>‘External necessity' can only be understood to mean that the laws and interests of the family and civil society must give way in case of collision with the laws and interests of the state, that they are subordinate to it, that their existence is dependent on it, or again that its will and its law appear to their will and their laws as a necessity!</p> <p>But Hegel is not speaking here about empirical collisions; he is speaking about the relationship of the ‘spheres of private rights and private welfare, of the family and civil society,' to the state; it is a question of the essential relationship of these spheres themselves. Not only their interests but also their laws and their essential determinations are dependent on the state and subordinate to it. It is related to their laws and interests as higher authority, while their interest and law are related to it as its ‘subordinates'. They exist in their dependence on it. Precisely because subordination and dependence are external relations, limiting and contrary to an autonomous being, the relationship of family and civil society to the state is that of external necessity, a necessity which relates by opposition to the inner being of the thing. The very fact that the laws concerning the private rights of persons depend on the specific character of the state and are modified according to it is thereby subsumed under the relationship of external necessity', precisely because civil society and family in their true, that is in their independent and complete development, are presupposed by the state as particular spheres. ‘Subordination' and ‘dependence' are the expressions for an external, artificial, apparent identity, for the logical expression of which Hegel quite rightly uses the phrase ‘external necessity'. With the notions of ‘subordination' and ‘dependence' Hegel has further developed the one aspect of the divided identity, namely that of the alienation within the unity.</p> <p>On the other hand, however, it is the end immanent within them, and its strength lies in the unity of its own universal end and aim with the particular interest of individuals, in the fact that individuals have duties to the state in proportion as they have rights against it.</p> <p>Here Hegel sets up an unresolved antinomy: on the one hand external necessity, on the other hand immanent end. The unity of the universal end and aim of the state and the particular interest of individuals must consist in this, that the duties of individuals to the state and their rights against it are identical (thus, for example, the duty to respect property coincides with the right to property).</p> <p>This identity is explained in this way in the Remark [to § 261]:</p> <p>Duty is primarily a relation to something which from my point of view is substantive, absolutely universal. A right, on the other hand, is simply the embodiment of this substance and thus is the particular aspect of it and enshrines my particular freedom. Hence at abstract levels, right and duty appear parcelled out on different sides or in different persons. In the state, as something ethical, as the interpenetration of the substantive and the particular, my obligation to what is substantive is at the same time the embodiment of my particular freedom. This means that in the state duty and right are united in one and the same relation.</p> <p>§ 262. The actual Idea is mind, which, sundering itself into the two ideal spheres of its concept, family and civil society, enters upon its finite phase, but it does so only in order to rise above its ideality and become explicit as infinite actual mind. It is therefore to these ideal spheres that the actual Idea assigns the material of this its finite actuality, viz., human beings as a mass, in such a way that the function assigned to any given individual is visibly mediated by circumstances, his caprice and his personal choice of his station in life.</p> <p>Let us translate this into prose as follows:</p> <p>The manner and means of the state's mediation with the family and civil society are ‘circumstance, caprice, and personal choice of station in life'. Accordingly, the rationality of the state [Staatsvernunft] has nothing to do with the division of the material of the state into family and civil society.</p> <p>The state results from them in an unconscious and arbitrary way. Family and civil society appear as the dark natural ground from which the light of the state emerges. By material of the state is meant the business of the state, i.e., family and civil society, in so far as they constitute components of the state and, as such, participate in the state.</p> <p>This development is peculiar in two respects.</p> <p>1. Family and civil society are conceived of as spheres of the concept of the state, specifically as spheres of its finiteness, as its finite phase. It is the state which sunders itself into the two, which presupposes them, and indeed does this ‘only in order to rise above its ideality and become explicit as infinite actual mind'. ‘It sunders itself in order to...' It ‘therefore assigns to these ideal spheres the material of its finite actuality in such a way that the function assigned to any given individual is visibly mediated, etc'. The so-called ‘actual idea' (mind as infinite and actual) is described as though it acted according to a determined principle and toward a determined end. It sunders itself into finite spheres, and does this ‘in order to return to itself, to be for itself'; moreover it does this precisely in such a way that it is just as it actually is.</p> <p>In this passage the logical, pantheistic mysticism appears very clearly.</p> <p>The actual situation is that the assignment of the material of the state to the individual is mediated by circumstances, caprice, and personal choice of his station in life. This fact, this actual situation is expressed by speculative philosophy [der Spekulation] as appearance, as phenomenon. These circumstances, this caprice, this personal choice of vocation, this actual mediation are merely the appearance of a mediation which the actual Idea undertakes with itself and which goes on behind the scenes. Actuality is not expressed as itself but as another reality. Ordinary empirical existence does not have its own mind [Geist] but rather an alien mind as its law, while on the other hand the actual Idea does not have an actuality which is developed out of itself, but rather has ordinary empirical existence as its existence [Dasein].</p> <p>The Idea is given the status of a subject, and the actual relationship of family and civil society to the state is conceived to be its inner imaginary activity. Family and civil society are the presuppositions of the state; they are the really active things; but in speculative philosophy it is reversed. But if the Idea is made subject, then the real subjects - civil society, family, circumstances, caprice, etc. - become unreal, and take on the different meaning of objective moments of the Idea.</p> <p>2. The circumstance, caprice, and personal choice of station in life, through which the material of the state is assigned to the individual, are not said directly to be things which are real, necessary, and justified in and for themselves; qua circumstances, caprice, and personal choice they are not declared to be rational. Yet on the other hand they again are, but only so as to be presented for the phenomena of a mediation, to be left as they are while at the same time acquiring the meaning of a determination of the idea, a result and product of the Idea. The difference lies not in the content, but in the way of considering it, or in the manner of speaking. There is a two-fold history, one esoteric and one exoteric. The content lies in the exoteric part. The interest of the esoteric is always to recover the history of the logical Concept in the state. But the real development proceeds on the exoteric side.</p> <p>Reasonably, Hegel's sentences mean only the following:</p> <p>The family and civil society are elements of the state. The material of the state is divided amongst them through circumstances, caprice, and personal choice of vocation. The citizens of the state are members of families and of civil society.</p> <p>‘The actual Idea is mind which, sundering itself into the two ideal spheres of its concept, family and civil society, enters upon its finite phase' - thus the division of the state into the family and civil society is ideal, i.e., necessary, belonging to the essence of the state. Family and civil society are actual components of the state, actual spiritual existences of will; they are the modes of existence of the state; family and civil society make themselves into the state. They are the active force. According to Hegel they are, on the contrary, made by the actual Idea. It is not their own life's course which unites them into the state, but rather the life's course of the Idea, which has distinguished them from itself; and they are precisely the finiteness of this idea; they owe their existence to a mind [Geist] other than their own; they are determinations established by a third party, not self-determinations; for that very reason they are also determined as finiteness, as the proper finiteness of the ‘actual idea'. The purpose of their existence is not this existence itself, but rather the Idea separates these presuppositions off from itself in order to rise above its ideality and become explicit as infinite actual mind. This is to say that the political state cannot exist without the natural basis of the family and the artificial basis of civil society; they are its conditio sine qua non; but the conditions are established as the conditioned, the determining as the determined, the producing as the product of its product. The actual idea reduces itself into the finiteness of the family and civil society only in order to enjoy and to bring forth its infinity through their transcendence [Aufhebung]. It therefore assigns (in order to attain its end) to these ideal spheres the material of this its finite actuality (of this? of what? these spheres are really its finite actuality, its material) to human beings as a mass (the material of the state here is human beings, the mass, the state is composed of them, and this, its composition is expressed here as an action of the Idea, as a parcelling out which it undertakes with its own material. The fact is that the state issues from the mass of men existing as members of families and of civil society; but speculative philosophy expresses this fact as an achievement of the Idea, not the idea of the mass, but rather as the deed of an Idea-Subject which is differentiated from the fact itself) in such a way that the function assigned to the individual (earlier the discussion was only of the assignment of individuals to the spheres of family and civil society) is visibly mediated by circumstances, caprice, etc. Thus empirical actuality is admitted just as it is and is also said to be rational; but not rational because of its own reason, but because the empirical fact in its empirical existence has a significance which is other than it itself. The fact, which is the starting point, is not conceived to be such but rather to be the mystical result. The actual becomes phenomenon, but the Idea has no other content than this phenomenon. Moreover, the idea has no other than the logical aim, namely, ‘to become explicit as infinite actual mind'. The entire mystery of the Philosophy of Right and of Hegelian philosophy in general is contained in these paragraphs.</p> <p>§ 263. In these spheres in which its moments, particularity and individuality, have their immediate and reflected reality, mind is present as their objective universality glimmering in them as the power of reason in necessity (see § 184), i.e., as the institutions considered above.</p> <p>§ 264. Mind is the nature of human beings en masse and their nature is therefore twofold: (i) at one extreme, explicit individuality of consciousness and will, and (ii) at the other extreme, universality which knows and wills what is substantive. Hence they attain their right in both these respects only in so far as both their private personality and its substantive basis are actualised. Now in the family and civil society they acquire their right in the first of these respects directly and in the second indirectly, in that (i) they find their substantive self-consciousness in social institutions which are the universal implicit in their particular interests, and (ii) the Corporation supplies them with an occupation and an activity directed on a universal end.</p> <p>§ 265. These institutions are the components of the constitution (i.e., of rationality developed and actualised) in the sphere of particularity. They are, therefore, the firm foundation not only of the state but also of the citizen's trust in it and sentiment towards it. They are the pillars of public freedom since in them particular freedom is realised and rational, and therefore there is implicitly present even in them the union of freedom and necessity.</p> <p>§ 266. But mind is objective and actual to itself not merely as this (which?), necessity .... but also as the ideality and the heart of this necessity. Only in this way is this substantive universality aware of itself as its own object and end, with the result that the necessity appears to itself in the shape of freedom as well.</p> <p>Thus the transition of the family and civil society into the political state is this: the mind of those spheres, which is the mind of the state in its implicit moment, is now also related to itself as such, and is actual to itself as their inner reality. Accordingly, the transition is not derived from the specific essence of the family, etc., and the specific essence of the state, but rather from the universal relation of necessity and freedom. Exactly the same transition is effected in the Logic from the sphere of Essence to the sphere of Concept, and in the Philosophy of Nature from Inorganic Nature to Life. It is always the same categories offered as the animating principle now of one sphere, now of another, and the only thing of importance is to discover, for the particular concrete determinations, the corresponding abstract ones.</p> <p>§ 267. This necessity in ideality is the inner self-development of the Idea. As the substance of the individual subject, it is his political sentiment [patriotism] in distinction therefrom, as the substance of the objective world, it is the organism of the state, i.e., it is the strictly political state and its constitution.</p> <p>Here the subject is ‘the necessity in ideality', the ‘Idea within itself" and the predicate is political sentiment and the political constitution. Said in common language, political sentiment is the subjective, and the political constitution the objective substance of the state. The logical development from the family and civil society to the state is thus pure appearance, for what is not clarified is the way in which familial and civil sentiment, the institution of the family and those of society, as such, stand related to the political sentiment and political institutions and cohere with them.</p> <p>The transition involved in mind existing ‘not merely as necessity and realm of appearance' but as actual for itself and particular as ‘the ideality of this necessity' and the soul of this realm is no transition whatever, because the soul of the family exists for itself as love, etc. [see §§ 161 ff.] The pure ideality of an actual sphere, however, could exist only as knowledge [Wissenschaft].</p> <p>The important thing is that Hegel at all times makes the Idea the subject and makes the proper and actual subject, like ‘political sentiment', the predicate. But the development proceeds at all times on the side of the predicate.</p> <p>§ 268. contains a nice exposition concerning political sentiment, or patriotism, which has nothing to do with the logical development except that Hegel defines it as ‘simply a product of the institutions subsisting in the state since rationality is actually present in the state', while on the other hand these institutions are equally an objectification of the political sentiment. Cf. the Remark to this paragraph.</p> <p>§ 269. The patriotic sentiment acquires its specifically determined content from the various members of the organism of the state. This organism is the development of the Idea to its differences and their objective actuality. Hence these different members are the various powers of the state with their functions and spheres of action, by means of which. the universal continually engenders itself, and engenders itself in a necessary way because their specific character is fixed by the nature of the concept. Throughout this process the universal maintains its identity, since it is itself the presupposition of its own production. This organism is the constitution of the state.</p> <p>The constitution of the state is the organism of the state, or the organism of the state is the constitution of the state. To say that the different parts of an organism stand in a necessary relation which arises out of the nature of the organism is pure tautology. To say that when the political constitution is determined as an organism the different parts of the constitution, the different powers, are related as organic determinations and have a rational relationship to one another is likewise tautology. It is a great advance to consider the political state as an organism, and hence no longer to consider the diversity of powers as [in]organic, but rather as living and rational differences. But how does Hegel present this discovery?</p> <p>1. ‘This organism is the development of the Idea to its differences and their objective actuality.' It is not said that this organism of the state is its development to differences and their objective actuality. The proper conception is that the development of the state or of the political constitution to differences and their actuality is an organic development. The actual differences, or the different parts of the political constitution are the presupposition, the subject. The predicate is their determination as organic. Instead of that, the Idea is made subject, and the differences and their actuality are conceived to be its development and its result, while on the other hand the Idea must be developed out of the actual difference. What is organic is precisely the idea of the differences, their ideal determination.</p> <p>2. But here the Idea is spoken of as a subject which is developed to its differences. From this reversal of subject and predicate comes the appearance that an idea other than the organism is under discussion. The point of departure is the abstract Idea whose development in the state is the political constitution. Thus it is a question not of the political idea, but rather of the abstract Idea in the political element. When Hegel says, ‘this organism (namely, the state, or the constitution of the state) is the development of the Idea to its differences, etc.', he tells us absolutely nothing about the specific idea of the political constitution. The same thing can be said with equal truth about the animal organism as about the political organism. By what means then is the animal organism distinguished from the political? No difference results from this general determination; and an explanation which does not give the differentia specifica is no explanation. The sole interest here is that of recovering the Idea simply, the logical Idea in each element, be it that of the state or of nature; and the real subjects, as in this case the political constitution, become their mere names. Consequently, there is only the appearance of a real understanding, while in fact these determinate things are and remain uncomprehended because they are not understood in their specific essence.</p> <p>‘Hence these different members are the various powers of the state with their functions and spheres of action.' By reason of this small word ‘hence' [‘so'] this statement assumes the appearance of a consequence, a deduction and development. Rather, one must ask ‘How is it' [‘Wie so?'] that when the empirical fact is that the various members of the organism of the state are the various powers (and) their functions and spheres of action, the philosophical predicate is that they are members of an organism [?] Here we draw attention to a stylistic peculiarity of Hegel, one which recurs often and is a product of mysticism. The entire paragraph reads:<br class='autobr' /> The patriotic sentiment acquires its specifically determined content from the various members of the organism of the state. This organism is the development of the Idea to its differences and their objective actuality. Hence these different members are the various powers of the state with their functions and spheres of action, by means of which the universal continually engenders itself, and engenders itself in a necessary way because their specific character is fixed by the nature of the concept. Throughout this process the universal maintains its identity, since it is itself the presupposition of its own production. This organism is the constitution of the state.</p> <p>1. The patriotic sentiment acquires its specifically determined content from the various members of the organism of the state ... These different members are the various powers of the state with their functions and spheres of action.<br class='autobr' /> 2. The patriotic sentiment acquires its specifically determined content from the various members of the organism of the state. This organism is the development of the Idea to its differences and their objective actuality ... by means of which the universal continually engenders itself, and engenders itself in a necessary way because their specific character is fixed by the nature of the concept. Throughout this process the universal maintains its identity, since it is itself the presupposition of its own production. This organism is the constitution of the state.</p> <p>As can be seen, Hegel links the two subjects, namely, the ‘various members of the organism' and the ‘organism', to further determinations. In the third sentence the various members are defined as the various powers. By inserting the word ‘hence' it is made to appear as if these various powers were deduced from the interposed statement concerning the organism as the development of the Idea.</p> <p>He then goes on to discuss the various powers. The statement that the universal continually engenders itself while maintaining its identity throughout the process, is nothing new, having been implied in the definition of the various powers as members of the organism, as organic members; or rather, this definition of the various powers is nothing but a paraphrase of the statement about the organism being ‘the development of the Idea to its differences, etc.'</p> <p>These two sentences are identical:</p> <p>1. This organism is ‘the development of the idea to its differences and their objective actuality' or to differences by means of which the universal (the universal here is the same as the idea) continually engenders itself, and engenders itself in a necessary way because their specific character is fixed by the nature of the concept; and</p> <p>2. ‘Throughout this process the universal maintains its identity, since it is itself the presupposition of its own production.' The second is merely a more concise explication of ‘the development of the Idea to its differences'. Thereby, Hegel has advanced not a single step beyond the universal concept of the Idea or at most of the organism in general (for strictly speaking it is a question only of this specific idea). Why then is he entitled to conclude that ‘this organism is the constitution of the state'? Why not ‘this organism is the solar system'? The reason is that he later defined the various members of the state as the various powers. Now the statement that ‘the various members of the state are the various powers' is an empirical truth and cannot be presented as a philosophical discovery, nor has it in any way emerged as a result of an earlier development. But by defining the organism as the development of the idea, by speaking of the differences of the Idea, then by interpolating the concrete data of the various powers the development assumes the appearance of having arrived at a determinate content. Following the statement that the patriotic sentiment acquires its specifically determined content from the various members of the organism of the state' Hegel was not justified in continuing with the expression, ‘This organism. . .,' but rather with ‘the organism is the development of the idea, etc.' At least what he says applies to every organism, and there is no predicate which justifies the subject, ‘this organism'. What Hegel really wants to achieve is the determination of the organism as the constitution of the state. But there is no bridge by which one can pass from the universal idea of the organism to the particular idea of the organism of the state or the constitution of the state, nor will there ever be. The opening statement speaks of the various members of the organism of the state which are later defined as the various powers. Thus the only thing said is that the various powers of the organism of the state, or the state organism of the various powers, is the political constitution of the state. Accordingly, the bridge to the political constitution does not go from the organism of the Idea and its differences, etc., but from the presupposed concept of the various powers or the organism of the state.</p> <p>In truth, Hegel has done nothing but resolve the constitution of the state into the universal, abstract idea of the organism; but in appearance and in his own opinion he has developed the determinate reality out of the universal Idea. He has made the subject of the idea into a product and predicate of the Idea. He does not develop his thought out of what is objective [aus dem Gegenstand], but what is objective in accordance with a ready-made thought which has its origin in the abstract sphere of logic. It is not a question of developing the determinate idea of the political constitution, but of giving the political constitution a relation to the abstract Idea, of classifying it as a member of its (the idea's) life history. This is an obvious mystification.</p> <p>Another determination is that the specific character of the various powers is fixed by the nature of the concept, and for that reason the universal engenders them in a necessary way. Therefore the various powers do not have their specific character by reason of their own nature, but by reason of an alien one. And just as the necessity is not derived from their own nature still less is it critically demonstrated. On the contrary, their realisation is predestined by the nature of the concept, sealed in the holy register of the Santa Casa (the Logic). The soul of objects, in this case that of the state, is complete and predestined before its body, which ‘ is, properly speaking, mere appearance. The ‘concept' is the Son within the ‘Idea', within God the Father, the agens, the determining, differentiating principle. Here ‘Idea' and ‘Concept' are abstractions rendered independent.</p> <p>§ 270. (1) The abstract actuality or the substantiality of the state consists iii the fact that its end is the universal interest as such and the conservation therein of particular interests since the universal interest is the substance of these. (2) But this substantiality of the state is also its necessity, since its substantiality is divided into the distinct spheres of its activity which correspond to the moments of its concept, and these spheres, owing to this substantiality, are thus actually fixed determinate characteristics of the state, i.e., its powers. (3) But this very substantiality of the state is mind knowing and willing itself after passing through the forming process of education. The state, therefore, knows what it wills and knows it in its universality, i.e., as something thought. Hence it works and acts by reference to consciously adopted ends, known principles, and laws which are not merely implicit but are actually present to consciousness; and further, it acts with precise knowledge of existing conditions and circumstances, inasmuch as its actions have a bearing on these.</p> <p>(We will look at the Remark to this paragraph, which treats the relationship of state and church, later.)</p> <p>The employment of these logical categories deserves altogether special attention.</p> <p>(1) The abstract actuality or the substantiality of the state consists in the fact that its end is the universal interest as such and the conservation therein of particular interests since the universal interest is the substance of these.</p> <p>That the universal interest as such and as the subsistence of particular interests is the end of the state is precisely the abstractly defined actuality and subsistence of the state. The state is not actual without this end. This is the essential object of its will, but at the same time it is merely a very general definition of this object. This end qua Being is the principle of subsistence for the state.</p> <p>(2) But this (abstract actuality or) substantiality of the state is its necessity, since its substantiality is divided into the distinct spheres of its activity which correspond to the moments of its concept, and these spheres, owing to their substantiality, are thus actually fixed' determinate characteristics of the state, i.e., its powers.</p> <p>This abstract actuality or substantiality is its (the state's) necessity, since its actuality is divided into distinct spheres of activity, spheres whose distinction is rationally determined and which are, for that reason, fixed determinate characteristics. The abstract actuality of the state, its substantiality, is necessity inasmuch as the genuine end of the state and the genuine subsistence of the whole is realised only in the subsistence of the distinct spheres of the state's activity.</p> <p>Obviously the first definition of the state's actuality was abstract; it cannot be regarded as a simple actuality; it must be regarded as activity, and as a differentiated activity.</p> <p>The abstract actuality or the substantiality of the state ... is... its necessity, since its substantiality is divided into the distinct spheres of its activity which correspond to the moments of its concept, and these spheres, owing to this substantiality, are thus actually fixed determinate characteristics of the state, i.e., its powers.</p> <p>The condition of substantiality is the condition of necessity; i.e., the substance appears to be divided into independent but essentially determined actualities or activities. These abstractions can be applied to any actual thing. In so far as the state is first considered according to the model of the abstract it will subsequently have to be considered according to the model of concrete actuality, necessity, and realised difference.</p> <p>(3) But this very substantiality of the state is mind knowing and willing itself after passing through the forming process of education. The state, therefore, knows what it wills and knows it in its universality, i.e., as something thought. Hence it works and acts by reference to consciously adopted ends, known principles, and laws which are not merely implicit but are actually present to consciousness; and further, it acts with Precise knowledge of existing conditions and circumstances, inasmuch as its actions have a bearing on these.</p> <p>Now let's translate this entire paragraph into common language as follows:</p> <p>1. The self-knowing and self-willing mind is the substance of the state; (the educated self-assured mind is the subject and the foundation, the autonomy of the state).</p> <p>2. The universal interest, and within it the conservation of the particular interests, is the universal end and content of this mind, the existing substance of the state, the nature qua state of the self-knowing and willing mind.</p> <p>3. The self-knowing and willing mind, the self-assured, educated mind attains the actualisation of this abstract content only as a differentiated activity, as the existence of various powers, as an organically structured power.</p> <p>Certain things should be noted concerning Hegel's presentation.</p> <p>1. Abstract actuality, necessity (or substantial difference), substantiality, thus the categories of abstract logic, are made subjects. Indeed, abstract actuality and necessity are called ‘its', the state's, actuality and necessity; however (1) ‘it' - i.e., abstract actuality or substantiality - is the state's necessity; (2) abstract actuality or substantiality is what is divided into the distinct spheres of its activity which correspond to the moments of its concept. The moments of its concept are, ‘owing to this substantiality ... thus actually fixed determinations, powers. (3) Substantiality is no longer taken to be an abstract characteristic of the state, as its substantiality; rather, as such it is made subject, and then in conclusion it is said, ‘but this very substantiality of the state is mind knowing and willing itself after passing through the forming process of education'.</p> <p>2. Also it is not said in conclusion that the educated, etc., mind is substantiality, but on the contrary that substantiality is the educated, etc., mind. Thus mind becomes the predicate of its predicate.</p> <p>3. Substantiality, after having been defined (1) as the universal end of the state, then (2) as the various powers, is defined (3) as the educated, self-knowing and willing, actual mind. The real point of departure, the self-knowing and willing mind, without which the end of the state and the powers of the state would be illusions devoid of principle or support, inessential and even impossible existents, appears to be only the final predicate of substantiality, which had itself previously been defined as the universal end and as the various powers of the state. Had the actual mind been taken as the starting point, with the universal end its content, then the various powers would be its modes of self-actualisation, its real or material existence, whose determinate character would have had to develop out of the nature of its end. But because the point of departure is the Idea, or Substance as subject and real being, the actual subject appears to be only the final predicate of the abstract predicate.<br class='autobr' /> The end of the state and the powers of the state are mystified in that they take the appearance of modes of existence of the substance, drawn out of and divorced from their real existence, the self-knowing and willing mind, the educated mind.</p> <p>4. The concrete content, the actual determination appears to be formal, and the wholly abstract formal determination appears to be the concrete content. What is essential to determinate political realities is not that they can be considered as such but rather that they can be considered, in their most abstract configuration, as logical-metaphysical determinations. Hegel's true interest is not the philosophy of right but logic. The philosophical task is not the embodiment of thought in determinate political realities, but the evaporation of these realities in abstract thought. The philosophical moment is not the logic of fact but the fact of logic. Logic is not used to prove the nature of the state, but the state is used to prove the logic.</p> <p>There are three concrete determinations:</p> <p>1. the universal interest and the conservation therein of the particular interests as the end of the state;</p> <p>2. the various powers as the actualisation of this end of the state;</p> <p>3. the educated, self-assured, willing and acting mind as the subject of this end and its actualisation.</p> <p>These concrete determinations are considered to be extrinsic, to be hors d'oeuvres. Their importance to philosophy is that in them the state takes on the following logical significance:</p> <p>1. abstract actuality or substantiality;</p> <p>2. the condition of substantiality passes over into the condition of necessity or substantial actuality;</p> <p>3. substantial actuality is in fact concept, or subjectivity.</p> <p>With the exclusion of these concrete determinations, which can just as well be exchanged for those of another sphere such as physics which has other concrete determinations, and which are accordingly unessential, we have before us a chapter of the Logic.</p> <p>The substance must be ‘divided into the distinct spheres of its activity which correspond to the moments of its concept, and these spheres, owing to this substantiality, are thus actually fixed determinate characteristics of the state'. The gist of this sentence belongs to logic and is ready-made prior to the philosophy of right. That these moments of the concept are, in the present instance, distinct spheres of its (the state's) activity and the fixed determinate characteristics of the state, or powers of the state, is a parenthesis belonging to the philosophy of right, to the order of political fact. In this way the entire philosophy of right is only a parenthesis to logic. It goes without saying that the parenthesis is only an hors d'oeuvre of the real development. Cf. for example the Addition to § 270.:</p> <p>Necessity consists in this, that the whole is sundered into the differences of the concept and that this divided whole yields a fixed and permanent determinacy, though one which is not fossilised but perpetually recreates itself in its dissolution. Cf also the Logic.</p> <p>§ 271. The constitution of the state is, in the first place, the organisation of the state and the self-related process of its organic life, a process whereby it differentiates its moments within itself and develops them to self-subsistence.</p> <p>Secondly, the state is an individual, unique and exclusive, and therefore related to others. Thus it turns its differentiating activity outward and accordingly establishes within itself the ideality of its subsisting inward differentiations.</p> <p>Addition: The inner side of the state as such is the civil power while its outward tendency is the military power, although this has a fixed place inside the state itself</p> <p> Part 2. The Constitution §§ 272 - 286</p> <p> § 272. The constitution is rational in so far as the state inwardly differentiates and determines its activity in accordance with the nature of the concept. The result of this is that each of these powers is in itself the totality of the constitution, because each contains the other moments and has them effective in itself, and because the moments, being expressions of the differentiation of the concept, simply abide in their ideality and constitute nothing but a single individual whole.</p> <p>Thus the constitution is rational in so far as its moments can be reduced to abstract logical moments. The state has to differentiate and determine its activity not in accordance with its specific nature, but in accordance with the nature of the Concept, which is the mystified mobile of abstract thought. The reason of the constitution is thus abstract logic and not the concept of the state. In place of the concept of the constitution we get the constitution of the Concept. Thought is not conformed to the nature of the state, but the state to a ready made system of thought.</p> <p>§ 273. The state as a political entity is thus (how 'thus'?) cleft into three substantive divisions:</p> <p>(a) the power to determine and establish the universal - the Legislature;<br class='autobr' /> (b) the power to subsume single cases and the spheres of particularity<br class='autobr' /> (c) the power of subjectivity, as the will with the power of ultimate decision the Crown. In the crown, the different powers are bound into an individual unity which is thus at once the apex and basis of the whole, i.e., of constitutional monarchy.</p> <p>We will return to this division after examining the particulars of its explanation.</p> <p>§ 274. Mind is actual only as that which it knows itself to be, and the state, as the mind of a nation, is both the law permeating all relationships within the state and also, at the same time the manners and consciousness of its citizens. It follows, therefore, that the constitution of any given nation depends in general on the character and development of its self-consciousness. In its self-consciousness its subjective freedom is rooted and so, therefore, is the actuality of its constitution ... Hence every nation has the constitution appropriate to it and suitable for it.</p> <p>The only thing that follows from Hegel's reasoning is that a state n which the character and development of self-consciousness and the constitution contradict one another is no real state. That the constitution which was the product of a bygone self-consciousness can become an oppressive fetter for an advanced self-consciousness, etc., etc., are certainly trivialities. However, what would follow is only the demand for a constitution having within itself the characteristic and principle of advancing in step with consciousness, with actual man, which is possible only when man has become the principle of the constitution. Here Hegel is a sophist.</p> <p>(a) The Crown<br class='autobr' /> § 275. The power of the crown contains in itself the three moments of the whole (see 5 :272) viz. [a] the universality of the constitution and the laws; [b] counsel, which refers the particular to the universal; and [c] the moment of ultimate decision, as the self-determination to which everything else reverts and from which everything else derives the beginning of its actuality. This absolute self-determination constitutes the distinctive principle of the power of the crown as such, and with this principle our exposition is to begin.</p> <p>All the first part of this paragraph says is that both the universality of the constitution and the laws and counsel, or the reference of the particular to the universal, are the crown. The crown does not stand outside the universality of the constitution and the laws once the crown is understood to be the crown of the (constitutional) monarch.</p> <p>What Hegel really wants, however, is nothing other than that the universality of the constitution and the laws is the crown, the sovereignty of the state. So it is wrong to make the crown the subject and, inasmuch as the power of the sovereign can also be understood by the crown, to make it appear as if the sovereign, were the master and subject of this moment. Let us first turn to what Hegel declares to be the distinctive principle of the power of the crown as such, and we find that it is 'the moment of ultimate decision, as the self-determination to which everything else reverts and from which everything else derives the beginning of its actuality', in other words this 'absolute self-determination'.</p> <p>Here Hegel is really saying that the actual, i.e., individual will is the power of the crown. § 12 says it this way:</p> <p>When ... the will gives itself the form of individuality..., this constitutes the resolution of the will, and it is only in so far as it resolves that the will is an actual will at all.</p> <p>In so far as this moment of ultimate decision or absolute self-determination is divorced from the universality of content [i.e., the constitution and laws,] and the particularity of counsel it is actual will as arbitrary choice [Willkür]. In other words: arbitrary choice's the power of the crown, or the power of the crown is arbitrary choice.</p> <p>§ 276. The fundamental characteristic of the state as a political entity is the substantial unity, i.e., the ideality, of its moments. [a] In this unity, the particular powers and their activities are dissolved and yet retained. They are retained, however, only in the sense that their authority is no independent one but only one of the order and breadth determined by the Idea of the whole; from its might they originate, and they are its flexible limbs while it is their single self.</p> <p>Addition: Much the same thing as this ideality of the moments in the state occurs with life in the physical organism.</p> <p>It is evident that Hegel speaks only of the idea of the particular powers and their activities. They are to have authority only of the order and breadth determined by the idea of the whole; they are to originate from its might. That it should be so lies in the idea of the organism. But it would have to be shown how this is to be achieved. For in the state conscious reason must prevail; [and] substantial, bare internal and therefore bare external necessity, the accidental entangling of the powers and activities cannot be presented as something rational.</p> <p>§ 277. [b] The particular activities and agencies of the state are its essential moments and therefore are proper to it. The individual functionaries and agents are attached to their office not on the strength of their immediate personality, but only on the strength of their universal and objective qualities. Hence it is in an external and contingent way that these offices are linked with particular persons, and therefore the functions and powers of the state cannot be private property.</p> <p>It is self-evident that if particular activities and agencies are designated as activities and agencies of the state, as state functions and state powers, then they are not private but state property. That is a tautology.</p> <p>The activities and agencies of the state are attached to individuals (the state is only active through individuals), but not to the individual as physical but political; they are attached to the political quality of the individual. Hence it is ridiculous to say, as Hegel does, that 'it is in an external and contingent way that these offices are linked with particular persons'. On the contrary, they are linked with them by a vinculum substantiale, by reason of an essential quality of particular persons. These offices are the natural action of this essential quality. Hence the absurdity of Hegel's conceiving the activities and agencies of the state in the abstract, and particular individuality in opposition to it. He forgets that particular individuality is a human individual, and that the activities and agencies of the state are human activities. He forgets that the nature of the particular person is not his beard, his blood, his abstract Physis, but rather his social quality, and that the activities of the state, etc., are nothing but the modes of existence and operation of the social qualities of men. Thus it is evident that individuals, in so far as they are the bearers of the state's activities and powers, are to be considered according to their social and not their private quality.</p> <p>§ 278. These two points [a] and [b] constitute the sovereignty of the state. That is to say, sovereignty depends on the fact that the particular functions and powers of the state are not self-subsistent or firmly grounded either on their own account or in the particular will of the individual functionaries, but have their roots ultimately in the unity of the state as their single self.</p> <p>Remark to § 278.: Despotism means any state of affairs where law has disappeared and where the particular will as such, whether of a monarch or a mob ... counts as law, or rather takes the place of law; while it is precisely in legal, constitutional government that sovereignty is to be found as the moment of ideality - the ideality of the particular spheres and functions. That is to say, sovereignty brings it about that each of these spheres is not something independent, self-subsistent in its aims and modes of working, something immersed solely in itself, but that instead, even in these aims and modes of working, each is determined by and dependent on the aim of the whole (the aim which has been denominated in general terms by the rather vague expression 'welfare of the state').<br class='autobr' /> This ideality manifests itself in a twofold way:<br class='autobr' /> (i) In times of peace, the particular spheres and functions pursue the path of satisfying their particular aims and minding their own business, and it is in part only by way of the unconscious necessity of the thing that their self-seeking is turned into a contribution to reciprocal support and to the support of the whole ... In part, however, it is by the direct influence of higher authority that they are not only continually brought back to the aims of the whole and restricted accordingly .... but are also constrained to perform direct services for the support of the whole.<br class='autobr' /> (ii) In a situation of exigency, however, whether in home or foreign affairs, the organism of which these particular spheres are members fuses into the single concept of sovereignty. The sovereign is entrusted with the salvation of the state at the sacrifice of these particular authorities whose powers are valid at other times, and it is then that that ideality comes into its proper actuality.</p> <p>Thus this ideality is not developed into a comprehended, rational system. In times of peace it appears either as merely an external constraint effected by the ruling power on private life through direct influence of higher authority, or a blind uncomprehended result of self-seeking. This ideality has its proper actuality only in the state's situation of war or exigency, such that here its essence is expressed as the actual, existent state's situation of war and exigency, while its 'peaceful' situation is precisely the war and exigency of self-seeking.</p> <p>Accordingly, sovereignty, the ideality of the state, exists merely as internal necessity, as idea. And Hegel is satisfied with that because it is a question merely of the idea. Sovereignty thus exists on the one hand only as unconscious, blind substance. We will become equally well acquainted with its other actuality.</p> <p>§ 279. Sovereignty, at first simply the universal thought of this ideality, comes into existence only as subjectivity sure of itself, as the will's abstract and to that extent ungrounded self-determination in which finality of decision is rooted. This is the strictly individual aspect of the state, and in virtue of this alone is the state one. The truth of subjectivity, however, is attained only in a subject, and the truth of personality only in a person; and in a constitution which has become mature as a realisation of rationality, each of the three moments of the concept has its explicitly actual and separate formation. Hence this absolutely decisive moment of the whole is not individuality in general, but a single individual, the monarch.</p> <p>1. Sovereignty, at first simply the universal thought of this ideality, comes into existence only as subjectivity sure of itself.. The truth of subjectivity is attained only in a subject, and the truth of personality only in a person. In a constitution which has become mature as a realisation of rationality, each of the three moments of the concept has ... explicitly actual and separate formation.</p> <p>2. Sovereignty comes into existence only ... as the will's abstract and to that extent ungrounded self-determination in which finality of decision is rooted. This is the strictly individual aspect of the state, and in virtue of this alone is the state one ... (and in a constitution which has become mature as a realisation of rationality, each of the three moments of the concept has its explicitly actual and separate formation). Hence this absolutely decisive moment of the whole is not individuality in general, but a single individual, the monarch.</p> <p>The first sentence says only that the universal thought of this ideality, whose sorry existence we have just seen, would have to be the self-conscious work of subjects and, as such, exist for and in them.</p> <p>Had Hegel started with the real subjects as the bases of the state it would not have been necessary for him to let the state become subjectified in a mystical way. 'However, the truth of subjectivity', says Hegel, 'is attained only in a subject, and the truth of personality only in a person.' This too is a mystification. Subjectivity is a characteristic of subjects and personality a characteristic of the person. Instead of considering them to be predicates of their subjects, Hegel makes the predicates independent and then lets them be subsequently and mysteriously converted into their subjects.</p> <p>The existence of the predicate is the subject; thus the subject is the existence of subjectivity, etc. Hegel makes the predicates, the object independent, but independent as separated from their real independence, their subject. Subsequently, and because of this, the real subject appears to be the result; whereas one has to start from the real subject and examine its objectification. The mystical substance becomes the real subject and the real subject appears to be something else, namely a moment of the mystical substance. Precisely because Hegel starts from the predicates of universal determination instead of from the real Ens (hypokimenou, subject), and because there must be a bearer of this determination, the mystical idea becomes this bearer. This is the dualism: Hegel does not consider the universal to be the actual essence of the actual, finite thing, i.e. of the existing determinate thing, nor the real Ens to be the true subject of the infinite.</p> <p>Accordingly, sovereignty, the essence of the state, is here first conceived to be an independent being; it is objectified. Then, of course, this object must again become subject. However the subject then appears to be a self-incarnation of sovereignty, which is nothing but the objectified spirit of the state's subjects.</p> <p>This basic defect of the development aside, let us consider the first sentence of the paragraph. As it stands it says nothing more than that sovereignty, the ideality of the state as person, as subject, exists evidently as many persons, many subjects, since no single person absorbs in himself the sphere of personality, nor any single subject the sphere of subjectivity. What kind of ideality of the state would it have to be which, instead of being the actual self-consciousness of the citizens and the communal soul of the state, were one person, one subject [?] Nor has Hegel developed any more with this sentence. But consider now the second sentence which is joined with this one. What is important to Hegel is representing the monarch as the actual, 'God-man', the actual incarnation of the Idea.</p> <p>§ 279. Sovereignty ... comes into existence only ... as the will's abstract and to that extent ungrounded self-determination in which finality of decision is rooted. This is the strictly individual aspect of the state, and in virtue of this alone is the state one... In a constitution which has become mature as a realisation of rationality, each of the three moments of the concept has its explicitly actual and separate formation. Hence this absolutely decisive moment of the whole is not individuality in general, but a single individual, the monarch.</p> <p>We previously called attention to this sentence. The moment of deciding, of arbitrary yet determinate decision is the sovereign power of will in general. The idea of sovereign power, as Hegel develops it, is nothing other than the idea of the arbitrary, of the will's decision.</p> <p>But even while conceiving of sovereignty as the ideality of the state, the actual determination of the part through the idea of the whole, Hegel now makes it 'the will's abstract and to that extent ungrounded self-determination in which finality of decision is rooted. This is the strictly individual aspect of the state'. Before, the discussion was about subjectivity, now it's about individuality. The state as sovereign must be one, one individual, it must possess individuality. The state is one not stay in this individuality; individuality is only the natural moment of its oneness, the state's determination as nature [Naturbestimmung]. 'Hence this absolutely decisive moment of the whole is not individuality in general, but a single individual, the monarch.' How so? Because 'each of the three moments of the concept has its explicitly actual and separate formation'. One moment of the concept is oneness, or unity; alone this is not yet one individual. And what kind of constitution would it have to be in which universality, particularity, and unity each had its explicitly actual and separate formation? Because it is altogether a question of no abstraction but of the state, of society, Hegel's classification can be accepted. What follows from that? The citizen as determining the universal is lawgiver, and as the one deciding, as actually willing, is sovereign. Is that supposed to mean that the individuality of the state's will is one individual, a particular individual distinct from all others? Universality too, legislation, has an explicitly actual and separate formation. Could one conclude from that that legislation is these particular individuals[?]<br class='autobr' /> The Common Man:</p> <p>2. The monarch has the sovereign power, or sovereignty.<br class='autobr' /> 3. Sovereignty does what it wills.</p> <p>Hegel:</p> <p>2. The sovereignty of the state is the monarch.<br class='autobr' /> 3. Sovereignty is 'the will's abstract and to that extent ungrounded self-determination in which finality of decision is rooted'.</p> <p>Hegel makes all the attributes of the contemporary European constitutional monarch into absolute self-determinations of the will. He does not say the will of the monarch is the final decision, but rather the final decision of the will is the monarch. The first statement is empirical, the second twists the empirical fact into a metaphysical axiom. Hegel joins together the two subjects, sovereignty as subjectivity sure of itself and sovereignty as ungrounded self-determination of the will, as the individual Will, in order to construct out of that the Idea as 'one individual'.</p> <p>It is evident that self-assured subjectivity also must actually will, must will as unity, as an individual. But who ever doubted that the state acts through individuals? If Hegel wanted to develop the idea that the state must have one individual as representative of its individual oneness, then he did not establish the monarch as this individual. The only positive result of this paragraph is that in the state the monarch is the moment of individual will, of ungrounded self-determination, of caprice or arbitrariness.</p> <p>Hegel's Remark to this paragraph is so peculiar that we must examine it closely:</p> <p>Remark to § 279. The immanent development of a science, the derivation of its entire content from the concept in its simplicity ... exhibits this peculiarity, that one and the same concept - the will in this instance - which begins by being abstract (because it is at the beginning), maintains its identity even while it consolidates its specific determinations, and that too solely by its own activity, and in this way gains a concrete content. Hence it is the basic moment of personality, abstract at the start in immediate rights, which has matured itself through its various forms of subjectivity, and now - at the stage of absolute rights, of the state, of the completely concrete objectivity of the will - has become the personality of the state, its certainty of itself. This last reabsorbs all particularity into its single self, cuts short the weighing of pros and cons between which it lets itself oscillate perpetually now this way and now that, and by saying 'I will', makes its decision and so inaugurates all activity and actuality.</p> <p>To begin with it is not a peculiarity of science that the fundamental concept of the thing always reappears.</p> <p>But also no advance has then taken place. Abstract personality was the subject of abstract right; there has been no progress, because as personality of the state it remains abstract personality. Hegel should not have been surprised at the real person - and persons make the state - reappearing everywhere as his essence. He should have been surprised at the reverse, and yet still more at the person as personality of the state reappearing in the same impoverished abstraction as does the person of private right.</p> <p>Hegel here defines the monarch as the personality of the state, its certainty of itself. The monarch is personified sovereignty, sovereignty become man, incarnate state - [or political - ] consciousness, whereby all other persons are thus excluded from this sovereignty, from personality, and from state - [or political - ] consciousness. At the same time however Hegel can give this 'Souverainété - Personne' no more content than 'I will', the moment of arbitrariness in the will. The state-reason and state-consciousness is a unique empirical person to the exclusion of all others, but this personified Reason has no content except the abstract on, 'I will'. L'Etat c'est moi.</p> <p>Further, however, personality like subjectivity in general, as infinitely self-related, has its truth (to be precise, its most elementary, immediate truth) only in a person, in a subject existing 'for' himself, and what exists 'for' itself is just simply a unit.</p> <p>It is obvious that personality and subjectivity, being only predicates of the person and the subject, exist only as person and subject; and indeed that the person is one. But Hegel needed to go further, for clearly the one has truth only as many one's. The predicate, the essence, never exhausts the spheres of its existence in a single one but in many one's.</p> <p>Instead of this Hegel concludes: 'The personality of the state is actual only as one person, the monarch.'</p> <p>Thus, because subjectivity is actual only as subject, and the subject actual only as one, the personality of the state is actual only as one person. A beautiful conclusion. Hegel could just as well conclude that because the individual man is one the human species is only a single man.</p> <p>Personality expresses the concept as such; but at the same time the person enshrines the actuality of the concept, and only when the concept is determined as a person is it the Idea or truth.</p> <p>To be sure, personality is merely an abstraction without the person, but only in its species-existence as persons is person the actual idea of personality.</p> <p>A so-called 'artificial [moralische] person', be it a society, a community, or a family, however inherently concrete it may be, contains personality only abstractly, as one moment of itself In an 'artificial person', personality has not yet achieved its true mode of existence. The state, however, is precisely this totality in which the moments of the concept have attained the actuality correspondent to their degree of truth.</p> <p>A great confusion prevails here. The artificial person, society, etc., is called abstract, precisely those species-forms [Gattutigsgestaltungen] in which the actual person brings his actual content to existence, objectifies himself, and leaves behind the abstraction of 'person quand même'. Instead of recognising this actualisation of the person as the most concrete thing, the state is to have the priority in order that the moments of the concept, individuality, attain a mystical existence. Rationality does not consist in the reason of the actual person achieving actuality, but in the moments of the abstract concept achieving it.</p> <p>The concept of the monarch is therefore of all concepts the hardest for ratiocination, i.e., for the method of reflection employed by the Understanding. This method refuses to move beyond isolated categories and hence here again knows only raisonnenient, finite points of view, and deductive argumentation. Consequently it exhibits the dignity of the monarch as something deduced, not only in its form but in its essence. The truth is, however, that to be something not deduced but purely self-originating is precisely the concept of monarchy. Akin then to this reasoning (to be sure!) is the idea of treating the monarch's right as grounded in the authority of God, since it is in its divinity that its unconditional character is contained. [Remark to § 279]</p> <p>In a certain sense every inevitable existent is purely self-originating; in this respect the monarch's louse as well as the monarch. Hegel, in saying that, has not said something special about the monarch. But should something specifically distinct from all other objects of science and of the philosophy of right be said about the monarch, then this would be real foolishness, correct only in so far as the 'one Person-idea' is something derived only from the imagination and not the intellect.</p> <p>We may speak of the 'sovereignty of the people' in the sense that any people whatever is self-subsistent vis-a-vis other peoples, and constitutes a state of its own, etc. [Remark to § 279]</p> <p>That is a triviality. If the sovereign is the actual sovereignty of the state then the sovereign could necessarily be considered vis-a-vis others as a self-subsistent state, even without the people. But he is sovereign in so far as he represents the unity of the people, and thus he is himself merely a representative, a symbol of the sovereignty of the people. The sovereignty of the people is not due to him but on the contrary he is due to it.</p> <p>We may also speak of sovereignty in home affairs residing in the people, provided that we are speaking generally about the whole state and meaning only what was shown above (see §§ 277-8), namely that it is to the state that sovereignty belongs.</p> <p>As though the people [das Volk] were not the real state. The state is an abstraction; the people alone is the concrete. And it is noteworthy that Hegel, who without hesitation ascribes living qualities to the abstraction, ascribes a living quality like that of sovereignty to the concrete [ - i.e. to the people - ] only with hesitation and conditions.</p> <p>The usual sense, however, in which men have recently begun to speak of the sovereignty of the people is that it is something opposed to the sovereignty existent in the monarch. So opposed to the sovereignty of the monarch, the sovereignty of the people is one of the confused notions based on the wild idea of the 'people'.</p> <p>The confused notions and the wild idea are only here on Hegel's pages. Certainly if sovereignty exists in the monarch then it is foolishness to speak of an opposed sovereignty in the people, for it lies in the concept of sovereignty that it can have no double and absolutely opposed existence. But:</p> <p>1. the question is exactly: Is not the sovereignty existent in the monarch an 1 illusion? Sovereignty of the monarch or sovereignty of the people, that is the question;</p> <p>2. a sovereignty of the people in opposition to that existent in the monarch can also be spoken of. But then it is not a question of one and the same sovereignty taking form on two sides but rather of two completely opposed concepts of sovereignty, one such that it can come to existence in a monarch, the other such that it can come to existence only in a people. This is like asking, is God the sovereign or is man? One of the two is a fiction [eine Unwarheit] even though an existing fiction.</p> <p>Taken without its monarch and the articulation of the whole which is the indispensable and direct concomitant of monarchy, the people is a formless mass and no longer a state. It lacks every one of those determinate characteristics - sovereignty, government, judges, magistrates, class-divisions [Stände], etc., - which are to be found only in a whole which is inwardly organised. By the very emergence into a people's life of moments of this kind which have a bearing on an organisation, on political life, a people ceases to be that indeterminate abstraction which, when represented in a quite general way, is called the 'people'.</p> <p>This whole thing is a tautology. If a people has a monarch and an articulation which is its indispensable and direct concomitant, i.e., if it is articulated as a monarchy, then extracted from this articulation it is certainly a formless mass and a quite general notion.</p> <p>If by 'sovereignty of the people' is understood a republican form of government, or to speak more specifically ... a democratic form, then... 1 such a notion cannot be further discussed in face of the Idea of the state in its full development.</p> <p>That is certainly correct if one has only such a notion and no developed idea of democracy.</p> <p>Democracy is the truth of monarchy, monarchy is not the truth of democracy. Monarchy is necessarily democracy in contradiction with itself, whereas the monarchial moment is no contradiction within democracy. Monarchy cannot, while democracy can be understood in terms of itself In democracy none of the moments obtains a significance other than what befits it. Each is really only a moment of the whole Demos. In monarchy one part determines the character of the whole; the entire constitution must be modified according to the immutable head. Democracy is the generic constitution; monarchy is a species, and indeed a poor one. Democracy is content and form; monarchy should be only form, but it adulterates the content.</p> <p>In monarchy the whole, the people, is subsumed under one of its modes of existence,. the political constitution; in democracy the constitution itself appears only as one determination, and indeed as the self-determination of the people. In monarchy we have the people of the constitution, in democracy the constitution of the people. Democracy is the resolved mystery of all constitutions. Here the constitution not only in itself, according to essence, but according to existence and actuality is returned to its real ground, actual man, the actual people, and established as its own work. The constitution appears as what it is, the free product of men. One could say that this also applies in a certain respect to constitutional monarchy; only the specific difference of democracy is that here the constitution is in general only one moment of the people's existence, that is to say the political constitution does not form the state for itself.</p> <p>Hegel proceeds from the state and makes man into the subjectified state; democracy starts with man and makes the state objectified man. just as it is not religion that creates man but man who creates religion, so it is not the constitution that creates the people but the people which creates the constitution. In a certain respect democracy is to all other forms of the state what Christianity is to all other religions. Christianity is the religion kat exohin, the essence of religion, deified man under the form of a particular religion. In the same way democracy is the essence of every political constitution, socialised man under the form of a particular constitution of the state. It stands related to other constitutions as the genus to its species; only here the genus itself appears as an existent, and therefore opposed as a particular species to those existents which do not conform to the essence. Democracy relates to all other forms of the state as their Old Testament. Man does not exist because of the law but rather the law exists for the good of man. Democracy is human existence, while in the other political forms man has only legal existence. That is the fundamental difference of democracy.</p> <p>All remaining forms of the state are certain, determined, particular forms of the state. In democracy the formal principle is simultaneously the material principle. For that reason it is the first true unity of the universal and the particular. In monarchy for example, or in the republic as merely a particular form of the state, political man has his particular and separate existence beside the unpolitical, private man. Property, contract, marriage, civil society appear here (just as Hegel quite rightly develops them for abstract forms of the state, except that he means to develop the Idea of the state) as particular modes of existence alongside the political state; that is, they appear as the content to which the political state relates as organising form, or really only as the determining, limiting intelligence which says now 'yes' now 'no' without any content of its own. In democracy the political state, as placed alongside this content and differentiated from it, is itself merely a particular content, like a particular form of existence of the people. In monarchy, for example, this particular entity, the political constitution, has the meaning of the universal which governs and determines all the particulars. In democracy the state as particular is only particular, and as universal it is the real universal, i.e., it is nothing definite in distinction from the other content. The modern French have conceived it thus: In true democracy the political state disappears [der politische Staat untergehe]. This is correct inasmuch as qua political state, qua constitution it is no longer equivalent to the whole.</p> <p>In all states distinct from democracy the state, the law, the constitution is dominant without really governing, that is, materially permeating the content of the remaining non-political spheres. In democracy the constitution, the law, the state, so far as it is political constitution, is itself only a self-determination of the people, and a determinate content of the people.</p> <p>Furthermore it is evident that all forms of the state have democracy for their truth, and for that reason are false to the extent that they are not democracy.</p> <p>In the ancient state the political state shaped the content of the state, with the other spheres being excluded; the modern state is an accommodation between the political and the non-political state.</p> <p>In democracy the abstract state has ceased to be the governing moment. The struggle between monarchy and republic is itself still a struggle within the abstract form of the state. The political republic [ - that is, the republic merely as political constitution - ] is democracy within the abstract form of the state. Hence the abstract state-form of democracy is the republic; but here [in true democracy] it ceases to be mere political constitution.</p> <p>Property, etc., in brief the entire content of law and the state is, with small modification, the same in North America as in Prussia. There, accordingly, the republic is a mere state form just as the monarchy is here. The content of the state lies outside these constitutions. Hence Hegel is right when he says that the political state is the constitution, i.e., that the material state is not political. Merely an external identity, a mutual determination, obtains here. It was most difficult to form the political state, the constitution, out of the various moments of the life of the people. It was developed as the universal reason in opposition to the other spheres i.e., as something opposed to them. The historical task then consisted in their revindication. But the particular spheres, in doing that, are not conscious of the fact that their private essence declines in relation to the opposite essence of the constitution, or political state, and that its opposite existence is nothing but the affirmation of their own alienation. The political constitution was until now the religious sphere, the religion of popular life, the heaven of its universality in opposition to the earthly existence of its actuality. The political sphere was the sole sphere of the state within the state, the sole sphere in which the content, like the form, was species-content, the true universal, but at the same time in such a way that, because this sphere opposed the others, its content also became formal and particular. Political life in the modern sense is the Scholasticism of popular life. Monarchy is the fullest expression of this alienation. The republic is the negation of this alienation within its own sphere. It is obvious that the political constitution as such is perfected for the first time when the private spheres have attained independent existence. Where commerce and property in land are not free, not yet autonomous, there is also not yet the political constitution. The Middle Ages was the democracy of nonfreedom.</p> <p>The abstraction of the state as such belongs only to modern times because the abstraction of private life belongs only to modern times. The abstraction of the political state is a modern product.</p> <p>In the Middle Ages there was serf, feudal property, trade corporation, corporation of scholars, etc., that is, in the Middle Ages property, trade, society, man was political; the material content of the state was fixed by reason of its form; every private sphere had a political character or was a political sphere, or again, politics was also the character of the private spheres. In the Middle Ages the political constitution was the constitution of private property, but only because the constitution of private property was a political one. In the Middle Ages popular life and state [i.e., political] life were identical. Man was the actual principle of the state, but he was unfree man. It was therefore the democracy of unfreedom, accomplished alienation. The abstract, reflected opposition [between popular life and state-, or political-life] belong only to modern times. The Middle Ages was the real dualism; modern times is the abstract dualism.</p> <p>At the stage at which constitutions are divided, as above mentioned, into democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy, the point of view taken is that of a still substantial unity, abiding in itself, without having yet embarked on its infinite differentiation and the plumbing of its own depths. At that stage, the moment of the filial, self-determining decision of the will does not come on the scene explicitly in its owl) proper actuality as an organic moment immanent in the state. [Remark to § 279]</p> <p>In immediate monarchy, democracy, aristocracy there is yet no political constitution in distinction from the actual material state or from the remaining content of popular life. The political state does not yet appear as the form of the material state. Either, as in Greece, the res publica was the real private concern, the real content of the citizens and the private man was slave, that is, the political state as political was the true and sole content of the citizen's life and will; or, as in Asiatic despotism, the political state was nothing but the private will of a single individual, and the political state, like the material state, was slave. What distinguishes the modern state from these states in which a substantial unity between people and state obtained is not that the various moments of the constitution are formed into particular actuality, as Hegel would have it, but rather that the constitution itself has been formed into a particular actuality alongside the real life of the people, the political state has become the constitution of the rest of the state.</p> <p>§ 280. This ultimate self in which the will of the state is concentrated is, when thus taken in abstraction, a single self and therefore is immediate individuality. Hence its natural character is implied in its very conception. The monarch, therefore, is essentially characterised as this individual, in abstraction from all his other characteristics, and this individual is raised to the dignity of monarchy in an immediate, natural fashion, i.e., through his birth in the course of nature.</p> <p>We have already heard that subjectivity is subject and that the subject is necessarily an empirical individual, a one. Now we are told that the concept of naturality, of corporeality, is implied in the concept of immediate individuality. Hegel has proven nothing but what is self-evident, namely, that subjectivity exists only as a corporeal individual, and what is obvious, namely, that natural birth appertains to the corporeal individual.</p> <p>Hegel thinks he has proven that the subjectivity of the state, sovereignty, the monarch, is 'essentially characterised as this individual, in abstraction from all his other characteristics, and this individual is raised to the dignity of monarch in an immediate, natural fashion, i.e., through his birth in the course of nature'. Sovereignty, monarchial dignity, would thus be born. The body of the monarch determines his dignity. Thus at the highest point of the state bare Physis rather than reason would be the determining factor. Birth would determine the quality of the monarch as it determines the quality of cattle.</p> <p>Hegel has demonstrated that the monarch must be born, which no one questions, but not that birth makes one a monarch.</p> <p>That man becomes monarch by birth can as little be made into a metaphysical truth as can the Immaculate Conception of Mary. The latter notion, a fact of consciousness, just as well as the empirical fact of the birth of man to the monarchy, can be understood as rooted in human illusion and conditions.</p> <p>In the Remark, which we examine more closely, Hegel takes pleasure in having demonstrated the irrational to be absolutely rational.</p> <p>This transition of the concept of pure self-determination into the immediacy of' being and so into the realm of nature is of a purely speculative character, and apprehension of it therefore belongs to logic.</p> <p>Indeed it is purely speculative. But what is purely speculative is not the transition from pure self-determination, from an abstraction, to pure naturality (to the contingency of birth), to the other extreme, car les extrêmes se touchent. What is speculative is that this is called a 'transition of the concept', and that absolute contradiction is presented as identity, and ultimate inconsistency presented as consistency.</p> <p>This can be considered as Hegel's positive acknowledgment: with the hereditary monarch in the place of self-determining reason, abstract natural determinacy appears not as what it is, not as natural determinacy, but as the highest determination of the state; this is the positive point at which the monarchy can no longer preserve the appearance of being the organisation of the rational will.</p> <p>Moreover, this transition is on the whole the same (?) as that familiar to us in the nature of willing in general, and there the process is to translate something from subjectivity (i.e., some purpose held before the mind) into existence. ... But the proper form of the Idea and of the transition here under consideration is the immediate conversion of the pure self-determination of the will (i.e., of the simple concept itself) into a single and natural existent without the mediation of a particular content (like a purpose in the case of action). [Remark to § 280]</p> <p>Hegel says that the conversion of the sovereignty of the state (of a self-determination of the will) into the body of the born monarch (into existence) is on the whole the transition of the content in general, which the will makes in order to actualise an end which is thought of, that is, to translate it into an existent. But Hegel says 'on the whole'. And the proper difference which he specifies [ - namely, immediate conversion of the pure self-determination of the will into a single and natural existent without the mediation of a particular content - ] is so proper that it eliminates all analogy and puts magic in the place of the 'nature of willing in general'.</p> <p>First of all, the conversion of the purpose held before the mind into the existent is here immediate, magical. Second, the subject here is the pure self-determination of the will, the simple concept itself; it is the essence of will which, as a mystical subject, decides. It is no real, individual, conscious will; it is the abstraction of the will which changes into a natural existent; it is the pure Idea which embodies itself as one individual.</p> <p>Third, since the actualisation of the volition in a natural existent takes place immediately, i.e., without a medium - which the will requires as a rule in order to objectify itself - then even a particular, determinate end is lacking; no mediation of a particular content, like a purpose in the case of action, takes place, which is evident because no actin g subject is present, and the abstraction, the pure idea of will, in order to act must act mystically. Now an end which is not particular is no end, and an act without an end is an endless, senseless act. Thus this whole parallel with the teleological act of the will shows itself finally to be a mystification, an empty action of the Idea. In fact, the medium here is the absolute will and the word of the philosopher; the particular end is the end of the philosophising subject, namely, constructing the hereditary monarch out of the pure Idea; and the actualisation of the end is Hegel's simple affirmation.</p> <p>In the so-called 'ontological' proof of the existence of God, we have the same conversion of the absolute concept into existence (the same mystification),' which conversion has constituted the depth of the Idea in the modern world, although recently (and rightly), it has been declared inconceivable.</p> <p>But since the idea of the monarch is regarded as being quite familiar to ordinary (i.e., understanding), consciousness, the Understanding clings here all the more tenaciously to its separation and the conclusions which its astute ratiocination deduces therefrom. As a result, it denies that the moment of ultimate decision in the state is linked implicitly and actually (i.e. in the rational concept) with the immediate birthright of the monarch. [Remark to § 280]</p> <p>It is denied that ultimate decision is a birthright, and Hegel asserts that the monarch is the ultimate decision through birth. But who has ever doubted that the ultimate decision in the state is joined to a real bodily individual and is linked with the immediate birthright?</p> <p>§ 281. Both moments in their undivided unity - (a) the will's ultimate ungrounded self, and (b) therefore its similarly ungrounded objective existence (existence being the category which is at home in nature) - constitute the Idea of something against which caprice is powerless, the 'majesty' of the monarch. In this unity lies the actual unity of the state, and it is only through this, its inward and outward immediacy, that the unity of the state is saved from the risk of being drawn down into the sphere of particularity and its caprices, ends and opinions, and saved too from the war of factions round the throne and from the enfeeblement and overthrow of the power of the state.</p> <p>The two moments are [a] the contingency of the will, caprice, and [b] the contingency of nature, birth; thus, His Majesty: Contingency. Contingency is thus the actual unity of the state.</p> <p>The way in which, according to Hegel, an inward and outward immediacy [of the state] is to be saved from collision, [due to caprice, factions,] etc., is incredible, since collision is precisely what it makes possible.</p> <p>What Hegel asserts of the elective monarch applies even more to the hereditary monarchy:</p> <p>In an elective monarchy ... the nature of the relation between king and people implies that the ultimate decision is left with the particular will, and hence the constitution becomes a Compact of Election, i.e., a surrender of the power of the state at the discretion of the particular will. The result of this is that the particular offices of state turn into private property, etc. [Remark to § 281]</p> <p>§ 282. The right to pardon criminals arises from the sovereignty of the monarch, since it is this alone which is empowered to actualise mind's power of making undone what has been done and wiping out a crime by forgiving and forgetting it.</p> <p>The right to pardon is the right to exercise clemency, the ultimate expression of contingent and arbitrary choice. Significantly this is what Hegel makes the essential attribute of the monarch. In the Addition to this very paragraph he defines the source of pardon as 'self-determined [or .groundless] decision' [die grundlose Entscheidung].</p> <p>§ 283. The second moment in the power of the crown is the moment of particularity, or the moment of a determinate content and its subsumption under the universal. When this acquires a special objective existence, it becomes the supreme council and the individuals who compose it. They bring before the monarch for his decision the content of current affairs of state or the legal provision required to meet existing needs, together with their objective aspects, i.e., the grounds on which decision is to be based, the relative laws, circumstances, etc. The individuals who discharge these duties are in direct contact with the person of the monarch and therefore the choice and dismissal alike of these individuals rest with his unrestricted caprice.</p> <p>§ 284. It is only for the objective side of decision, i.e., for knowledge of the problem and the attendant circumstances, and for the legal and other reasons which determine its solution, that men are answerable; in other words, it is these alone which are capable of objective proof. It is for this reason that these may fall within the province of a council which is distinct from the personal will of the monarch as such. Hence it is only councils or their individual members that are made answerable. The personal majesty of the monarch, on the other hand, as the final subjectivity of decision, is above all answerability for acts of government.</p> <p>Here Hegel describes in a wholly empirical way the ministerial power as it is usually defined in constitutional states. The only thing philosophy does with this empirical fact is to make it the existence and the predicate of the moment of particularity in the power of the crown.</p> <p>(The ministers represent the rational objective side of the sovereign will. Hence also the honor of being answerable falls to them, while the monarch is compensated with the imaginary coin of 'Majesty'.) Thus the speculative moment is quite poor. But then the development is based particularly on wholly empirical grounds, and indeed very abstract and bad empirical grounds.</p> <p>Thus, for example, the choice of ministers is placed in the unrestricted caprice of the monarch because they are in direct contact with the person of the monarch, i.e., because they are ministers. In the same way the unrestricted choice of the monarch's personal servants can be developed out of the absolute Idea.</p> <p>The basis for the answerability of the ministers is certainly better: 'It is only for the objective side of decision, i.e., for knowledge of the problem and the attendant circumstances, and for the legal and other reasons which determine its solution, that men are answerable: in other words, it is these alone which are capable of objective proof' Evidently 'the final subjectivity of decision', pure subjectivity, pure caprice, is not objective, hence also capable of no objective proof nor therefore of responsibility, once an individual is the blessed, sanctioned existence of caprice. Hegel's proof is conclusive if the constitutional provisions are taken as the point of departure; but these provisions themselves are not proven simply by analysing them, and this is all Hegel has done.</p> <p>The whole uncritical character of Hegel's philosophy of right is rooted in this confusion.</p> <p>§ 285. The third moment in the power of the crown concerns the absolute universality which subsists subjectively in the conscience of the monarch and objectively in the whole of the constitution and the laws. Hence the power of the crown presupposes the other moments in the state just as it is presupposed by each of them.</p> <p>§ 286. The objective guarantee of the power of the crown, of the hereditary right of succession to the throne, and so forth, consists in the fact that just as monarchy has its own actuality in distinction from that of the other rationally determined moments in the state, so these others explicitly possess the rights and duties appropriate to their own character. In the rational organism of the state, each member, by maintaining itself in its own position, eo ipso maintains the others in theirs.</p> <p>Hegel does not see that with this third moment, the 'absolute universality', he obliterates the first two, or vice versa. 'The power of the crown presupposes the other moments in the state just as it is presupposed by each of them.' If this supposition is taken as real and not mystical, then the crown is established not through birth but through the other moments, and accordingly is not hereditary but fluid, i.e., determined by the state and assigned by turns to individuals of the state in accordance with the organisation of the other moments. In a rational organism the head cannot be iron and the body flesh. In order to preserve themselves the members must be equally of one flesh and blood. But the hereditary monarch is not equal, he is of other stuff. Here the prosaic character of the rationalistic will of the other members of the state faces the magic of nature. Moreover, members can mutually maintain themselves only in so far as the whole organism is fluid and each of them is taken up [aufgehoben] in this fluidity, in so far as no one of them, as in this case the head of the state, is unmoved and inalterable. Thus by means of this determination Hegel abolishes sovereignty by birth.</p> <p>A second point has to do with the question of irresponsibility. if the prince violates the whole of the constitution, and the laws, his irresponsibility ceases because his constitutional existence ceases. But precisely these laws and this constitution make him irresponsible. Thus they contradict themselves, and this one stipulation abolishes law and constitution. The constitution of constitutional monarchy is irresponsibility.</p> <p>Hegel, however, is content with saying that just as monarchy has its own actuality in distinction from that of the other rationally determined moments in the state, so these others explicitly possess the rights and duties appropriate to their own character. Therefore he must call the constitution of the Middle Ages an organisation. Thus Hegel has only a mass of particular spheres united in a relation of external necessity, and indeed an individual monarch belongs only to this situation. In a state wherein each determination exists explicitly, the sovereignty of the state must also be established as a particular individual.</p> <p>Résumé of Hegel's development of the Crown<br class='autobr' /> or the Idea of State Sovereignty</p> <p>The Remark to § 279 says:</p> <p>We may speak of the sovereignty of the people in the sense that any people whatever is self-subsistent vis-a-vis other peoples, and constitutes a state of its own, like the British people for instance. But the peoples of England, Scotland, or Ireland, or the peoples of Venice, Genoa, Ceylon, etc. are not sovereign peoples at all now that they have ceased to have rulers or supreme governments of their own.</p> <p>Thus here sovereignty of the people is nationality, and the sovereignty of the prince is nationality; or in other words the principle of principality is nationality, which explicitly and exclusively forms the sovereignty of a people. A people whose sovereignty consists only in nationality has a monarch. The different nationality of peoples cannot be better established and expressed than by means of different monarchs. The cleft between one .absolute individual and another is the cleft between these nationalities.</p> <p>The Greeks (and Romans) were national because and in so far as they were the sovereign people. The Germans are sovereign because and in so far as they are national. (Vid. p. xxxiv.)</p> <p>(ad xii) A so-called 'artificial person', the same Remark says further, be it a society, a community, or a family, however inherently concrete it may be, contains personality only abstractly, as one moment of itself In an artificial person', personality has not achieved its true mode of existence. The state, however, is precisely this totality in which the moments of the concept have attained the actuality correspondent to their degree of truth.</p> <p>This artificial person, society, family, etc., has personality within it only abstractly; against that, in the monarch, the person has the state in him.</p> <p>In fact, the abstract person brings his personality to its real existence only in the artificial person, society, family, etc. But Hegel conceives of society, family, etc., the artificial person in general, not as the realisation of the actual, empirical person but as the real person which, however, has the moment of personality in it only abstractly. Whence also comes his notion that it is not actual persons who come to be a state but the state which must first come to be an actual person. Instead of the state being brought forth, therefore, as the ultimate reality of the person, as the ultimate social reality of man, a single empirical man, an empirical person, is brought forth as the ultimate actuality of the state. This inversion of subject into object and object into subject is a consequence of Hegel's wanting to write the biography of the abstract Substance, of the Idea, with human activity, etc., having consequently to appear as the activity and result of something other than man; it is a consequence of Hegel's wanting to allow the essence of man to act for itself as an imaginary individual instead of acting in its actual, human existence, and it necessarily has as its result that an empirical existent is taken in an uncritical manner to be the real truth of the Idea, because it is not a question of bringing empirical existence to its truth but of bringing the truth to empirical existence, and thereupon the obvious is developed as a real moment of the idea. (More later concerning this inevitable change of the empirical into speculation and of speculation into the empirical.)</p> <p>In this way the impression of something mystical and profound is also created. That man has been born is quite vulgar, so too that this existence established through physical birth comes to be social man, etc., and citizen; man becomes everything that he becomes through his birth. But it is very profound and striking that the idea of the state is directly born, that it has brought itself forth into empirical existence in the birth of the sovereign. In this way no content is gained, only the form of the old content altered. It has received a philosophical form, a philosophical certification.</p> <p>Another consequence of this mystical speculation is that a particular empirical existent, a single empirical existent in distinction from the others is conceived to be the existence of the Idea. It makes once again a deep mystical impression to see a particular empirical existent established by the Idea, and hence to encounter at all levels an incarnation of God.</p> <p>If the modes of man's social existence, as found for example in the development of family, civil society, state, etc., are regarded as the actualisation and objectification of man's essence, then family, civil society, etc., appear as qualities inhering in subjects. Man then remains what is essential within these realities, while these then appear as his actualised universality, and hence also as something common to all men. But if, on the contrary, family, civil society, state, etc., are determinations of the idea, of Substance as subject, then they must receive an empirical actuality, and the mass of men in which the idea of civil society is developed takes on the identity of citizen of civil society, and that in which the idea of the state is developed takes on that of citizen of the state. In this case the sole concern is with allegory, i.e., with ascribing to any empirical existent the meaning of actualised Idea; and thus it is evident that these receptacles have fulfilled their destiny once they have become a determinate incarnation of a life-moment of the Idea. Consequently the universal appears everywhere as a determinate particular thing, while the individual nowhere arrives at his true universality.</p> <p>At the most profound and speculative level it therefore appears necessary when the most abstract determinations which in no way really ripen to true social actuality, the natural bases of the state like birth (in the case of the prince) or private property (as in primogeniture), appear to be the highest, immediate Idea-become-man.</p> <p>It is evident that the true method is turned upside down. What is most simple is made most complex and vice versa. What should be the point of departure becomes the mystical result, and what should be the rational result becomes the mystical point of departure.</p> <p>If however the prince is the abstract person who has the state in him, then this can only mean that the essence of the state is the abstract private person. It utters its secret only when at the peak of its development. He is the lone private person in whom the relation of the private person in general to the state is actualised.</p> <p>The prince's hereditary character results from his concept. He is to be the person who is specified from the entire race of men, who is distinguished from all other persons. But then what is the ultimate fixed difference of one person from all others? The body. And the highest function of the body is sexual activity. Hence the highest constitutional act of the king is his sexual activity, because through this he makes a king and carries on his body. The body of his son is the reproduction of his own body, the creation of a royal body.</p> <p>Part 3. The Executive §§ 287 - 297</p> <p> (b) The Executive<br class='autobr' /> § 287. There is a distinction between the monarch's decisions and their execution and application, or in general between his decisions and the continued execution or maintenance of past decisions, existing laws, regulations, organisations for the securing of common ends, and so forth. This task of ... subsuming the particular under the universal is comprised in the executive power, which also includes the powers of the judiciary and the police. The latter have a more immediate bearing on the particular concerns of civil society and they make the universal interest authoritative over its particular aims.</p> <p>This is the usual interpretation of the executive. The only thing which can be mentioned as original with Hegel is that he coordinates executive, police, and judiciary, where as a rule the administrative and judiciary powers are treated as opposed.</p> <p>§ 288. Particular interests which are common to everyone fall within civil society and lie outside the absolutely universal interest of the state proper (see § 256). The administration of these is in the hands of Corporations (see § 251), commercial and professional as well as municipal, and their officials, directors, managers, and the like. It is the business of these officials to manage the private property and interests of these particular spheres and, from that point of view, their authority rests on the confidence of their commonalties and professional equals. On the other hand, however, these circles of particular interests must be subordinated to the higher interests of the state, and hence the filling of positions of responsibility in Corporations, etc., will generally be effected by a mixture of popular election by those interested with appointment and ratification by higher authority.</p> <p>This is a simple description of the empirical situation in some countries.</p> <p>§ 289. The maintenance of the state's universal interest, and of legality, in this sphere of particular rights, and the work of bringing these rights back to the universal, require to be superintended by holders of the executive power, by (a) the executive civil servants and (b) the higher advisory officials (who are organised into committees). These converge in their supreme heads who are in direct contact with the monarch.</p> <p>Hegel has not developed the executive. But given this, he has not demonstrated that it is anything more than a function, a determination of the citizen in general. By viewing the particular interests of civil society as such, as interests which lie outside the absolutely universal interest of the state, he has only deduced the executive as a particular, separate power.</p> <p>[Remark to § 289:] Just as civil society is the battlefield where everyone's individual private interest meets everyone else's, so here we have the struggle (a) of private interests against particular matters of common concern and (b) of both of these together against the organisation of the state and its higher outlook. At the same time the corporation mind, engendered when the particular spheres gain their title to rights, is now inwardly converted into the mind of the state, since it finds in the state the means of maintaining its particular ends. This is the secret of the patriotism of the citizens in the sense that they know the state as their substance, because it is the state that maintains their particular spheres of interest together with the title, authority, and welfare of these. In the corporation mind the rooting of the particular in the universal is directly entailed, and for this reason it is in that mind that the depth and strength which the state possesses in sentiment is seated.</p> <p>This is especially worth noting:</p> <p>1. because of the definition of civil society as the bellum omnium contra omnes;</p> <p>2. because private egoism is revealed to be the secret of the patriotism of the citizens and the depth and strength which the state possesses in sentiment;</p> <p>3. because the 'burgher', the man of particular interest as opposed to the universal, the member of civil society, is considered to be a fixed individual whereas the state likewise in fixed individuals opposes the 'burghers'.</p> <p>One would suppose that Hegel would have to define 'civil society' as well as the 'family' as a determination of each political individual, and so too the later state qualities as equally a determination of the political individual. But with Hegel it is not one and the same individual who develops a new determination of his social essence. It is the essence of the will, which allegedly develops its determinations out of itself. The subsisting, distinct and separated, empirical existences of the state are conceived to be immediate incarnations of one of these determinations.</p> <p>Just as the universal as such is rendered independent it is immediately mixed in with what empirically exists, and then this limited existent is immediately and uncritically taken for the expression of the Idea.</p> <p>Here Hegel comes into contradiction with himself only in so far as he does not conceive of the 'family' man in the same way he conceived of the member of civil society, I.e., as a fixed breed excluded from other qualities.</p> <p>§ 290. Division of labor... occurs in the business of the executive also. For this reason, the organisation of officials has the abstract though difficult task of so arranging that (a) civil life shall be governed in a concrete manner from below where it is concrete, but that (b) none the less the business of government shall be divided into its abstract branches -armed by special officials as different centers of administration, and further that (c) the operations of these various departments shall converge again when they are directed on civil life from above, in the same way as they converge into a general supervision in the supreme executive.</p> <p>The Addition to this paragraph is to be considered later.</p> <p>§ 291. The nature of the executive functions is that they are objective and that in their substance they have been explicitly fixed by previous decisions (see Paragraph 287); these functions have to be fulfilled and carried out by individuals. Between all individual and his office there is no immediate natural link. Hence individuals are not appointed to office on account of their birth or native personal gifts. The objective factor in their appointment is knowledge and proof of ability. Such proof guarantees that the state will get what it requires; and since it is the sole condition of appointment, it also guarantees to every citizen the chance of joining the class of civil servants [dem allgemeinen Stande].</p> <p>§ 292. Since the objective qualification for the civil service is not genius (as it is for work as an artist, for example), there is of necessity an indefinite plurality of eligible candidates whose relative excellence is not determinable with absolute precision. The selection of one of the candidates, his nomination to office, and the grant to him of full authority to transact public business-all this, as the linking of two things, a man and his office, which in relation to each other must always be fortuitous, in the state which is sovereign and has the last word, is the subjective aspect of election to office, and it must lie with the crown as the power.</p> <p>§ 293. The particular public functions which the monarch entrusts to officials constitute one part of the objective aspect of the sovereignty residing in the crown. Their specific discrimination is therefore given in the nature of the thing. And while the actions of the officials are the fulfilment of their duty, their office is also a right exempt from contingency.</p> <p>Note only the objective aspect of the sovereignty residing in the crown.</p> <p>§ 294. Once an individual has been appointed to his official position by the sovereign's act (see § 292), the tenure of his post is conditional on his fulfilling his duties. Such fulfilment is the very essence of his appointment, and it is only consequential that he finds in his office his livelihood and the assured satisfaction of his particular interests (see § 294), and further that his external circumstances and his official work are freed from other kinds of subjective dependence and influence.</p> <p>What the service of the state ... requires, it says in the Remark, is that men shall forgo the selfish and capricious satisfaction of their subjective ends; by this very sacrifice, they acquire the right to find their satisfaction in, but only in, the dutiful discharge of their public functions. In this fact, so far as public business is concerned, there lies the link between universal and particular interests which constitutes both the concept of the state and its inner stability (see § 260) ... The assured satisfaction of particular needs removes the external compulsion which may tempt a man to seek ways and means of satisfying them at the expense of his official duties. Those who are entrusted with affairs of state find in its universal power the protection they need against another subjective phenomenon, namely the personal passions of the governed, whose primitive interests, etc., suffer injury as the universal interest of the state is made to prevail against them.</p> <p>§ 295. The security of the state and its subjects against the misuse of power by ministers and their officials lies directly in their hierarchical organisation and their answerability; but it lies too in the authority given to societies and Corporations, because in itself this is a barrier against the intrusion of subjective caprice into the power entrusted to a civil servant, and it completes from below the state control which does not reach down as far as the conduct of individuals.</p> <p>§ 296. But the fact that a dispassionate, upright, and polite demeanour becomes customary [in civil servants], is (i) partly a result of direct education in thought and ethical conduct. Such an education is a mental counterpoise to the mechanical and semi-mechanical activity involved in acquiring the so-called 'sciences' of matters connected with administration, in the requisite business training, in the actual work done, etc. (ii) The size of the state, however, is an important factor in producing this result, since it diminishes the stress of family and other personal ties, and also makes less potent and so less keen such passions as hatred, revenge, etc. In those who are busy with the important questions arising in a great state, these subjective interests automatically disappear, and the habit is generated of adopting universal interests, points of view, and activities.</p> <p>§ 297. Civil servants and the members of the executive constitute the greater part of the middle class, the class in which the consciousness of right and the developed intelligence of the mass of the people is found. The sovereign working on the middle class at the top, and Corporation-rights working on it at the bottom, are the institutions which effectively prevent it from acquiring the isolated position of an aristocracy and using its education and skill as means to an arbitrary tyranny.</p> <p>Addition to § 297. The middle class, to which civil servants belong, is politically conscious and the one in which education is most prominent. ... It is a prime concern of the state that a middle class should be developed, but this can be done only if the state is an organic unity like the one described here, i.e., it can be done only by giving authority to spheres of particular interests, which are relatively independent, and by appointing an army of officials whose personal arbitrariness is broken against such authorised bodies. Action in accordance with everyone's rights, and the habit of such action, is a consequence of the counterpoise to officialdom which independent and self-subsistent bodies create.</p> <p>What Hegel says about 'the Executive' does not merit the name of a philosophical development. Most of the paragraphs could be found verbatim in the Prussian Landrecht. Yet the administration proper is the most difficult point of the development.</p> <p>Because Hegel has already claimed the police and the judiciary to be spheres of civil society, the executive is nothing but the administration, which he develops as the bureaucracy.</p> <p>First of all, the 'Corporations', as the self-government of civil society, presuppose the bureaucracy. The sole determination arrived at is that the choice of the administrators and their officials, etc., is a mixed choice originating from the members of civil society and ratified by the proper authority (or as Hegel says, 'higher authority').</p> <p>Over this sphere, for the maintenance of the state's universal interest and of legality, stand holders of the executive power, the executive civil servants and the advisory officials, which converge into the monarch.</p> <p>A division of labour occurs in the business of the executive. Individuals must prove their capability for executive functions, i.e., they must sit for examinations. The choice of the determinate individual for civil service appointment is the prerogative of the royal authority. The distribution of these functions is given in the nature of the thing. The official function is the duty and the life's work of the civil servants. Accordingly they must be paid by the state. The guarantee against malpractice by the bureaucracy is partly its hierarchy and answerability, and on the other hand the authority of the societies and Corporations; its humaneness is a result partly of direct education in thought and ethical conduct and partly of the size of the state. The civil servants form the greater part of the middle class. The safeguard against its becoming like an aristocracy and tyranny is partly the sovereign at the top and partly Corporation-rights at the bottom. The middle class is the class of education. Voila tout! Hegel gives us an empirical description of the bureaucracy, partly as it actually is, and partly according to the opinion which it has of itself And with that the difficult chapter on 'the Executive' is brought to a close.</p> <p>Hegel proceeds from the separation of the state and civil society, the separation of the particular interests and the absolutely universal; and indeed the bureaucracy is founded on this separation. Hegel proceeds from the presuppositon of the Corporations; and indeed the bureaucracy presupposes the Corporations, in any event the 'corporation mind'. Hegel develops no content of the bureaucracy, but merely some general indications of its formal organisation; and indeed the bureaucracy is merely the formalism of a content which lies outside the bureaucracy itself.</p> <p>The Corporations are the materialism of the bureaucracy, and the bureaucracy is the spiritualism of the corporations. The Corporation is the bureaucracy of civil society, and the bureaucracy is the Corporation of the state. In actuality, the bureaucracy as civil society of the state is opposed to the state of civil society, the Corporations. Where the bureaucracy is to become a new principle, where the universal interest of the state begins to become explicitly a singular and thereby a real interest, it struggles against the Corporations as every consequence struggles against the existence of its premises. On the other hand once the real life of the state awakens and civil society frees itself from the Corporations out of its inherent rational impulse, the bureaucracy seeks to restore them; for as soon as the state of civil society falls so too does the civil society of the state. The spiritualism vanishes with its opposite materialism. The consequence struggles for the existence of its premises as soon as a new principle struggles not against the existence of the premises but against the principle of their existence. The same mind that creates the Corporation in society creates the bureaucracy in the state. Thus as soon as the corporation mind is attacked so too is the mind of the bureaucracy; and whereas the bureaucracy earlier fought the existence of the Corporations in order to create room for its own existence, now it seeks vigorously to sustain the existence of the Corporations in order to save the Corporation mind, which is its own mind.</p> <p>The bureaucracy is the state formalism of civil society. It is the state's consciousness, the state's will, the state's power, as a Corporation. (The universal interest can behave vis-a-vis the particular only as a particular so long as the particular behaves vis-a vis the universal as a universal. The bureaucracy must thus defend the imaginary universality of particular interest, i.e., the Corporation mind, in order to defend the imaginary particularity of the universal interests, i.e., its own mind. The state must be Corporation so long as the Corporation wishes to be state.) Being the state's consciousness, will, and power as a Corporation, the bureaucracy is thus a particular, closed society within the state. The bureaucracy wills the Corporation as an imaginary power. To be sure, the individual Corporation also has this will for its particular interest in opposition to the bureaucracy, but it wills the bureaucracy against the other Corporation, against the other particular interest. The bureaucracy as the completed Corporation therefore wins the day over the Corporation which is like incomplete bureaucracy. It reduces the Corporation to an appearance, or wishes to do so, but wishes this appearance to exist and to believe in its own existence. The Corporation is civil society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy is the state which has really made itself into civil society.</p> <p>The state formalism, which the bureaucracy is, is the state as formalism, and Hegel has described it precisely as such a formalism. Because this state formalism constitutes itself as a real power and becomes itself its own material content, it is evident that the bureaucracy is a tissue of practical illusion, or the illusion of the state. The bureaucratic mind is through and through a Jesuitical, theological mind. The bureaucrats are the Jesuits and theologians of the state. The bureaucracy is la république prêtre.</p> <p>Since the bureaucracy according to its essence is the state as formalism, so too it is according to its end. The real end of the state thus appears to the bureaucracy as an end opposed to the state. The mind of the bureaucracy is the formal mind of the state. It therefore makes the formal mind of the state, or the real mindlessness of the state, a categorical imperative. The bureaucracy asserts itself to be the final end of the state. Because the bureaucracy makes its formal aims its content, it comes into conflict everywhere with the real aims. Hence it is obliged to present what is formal for the content and the content for what is formal. The aims of the state are transformed into aims of bureaus, or the aims of bureaus into the aims of the state. The bureaucracy is a circle from which no one can escape. Its hierarchy is a hierarchy of knowledge. The highest point entrusts the understanding of particulars to the lower echelons, whereas these, on the other hand, credit the highest with an understanding in regard to the universal; and thus they deceive one another.</p> <p>The bureaucracy is the imaginary state alongside the real state; it is the spiritualism of the state. As a result everything has a double meaning, one real and one bureaucratic, just as knowledge is double, one real and one bureaucratic (and the same with the will). A real thing, however, is treated according to its bureaucratic essence, according to its otherworldly, spiritual essence. The bureaucracy has the being of the state, the spiritual being of society, in its possession; it is its private property. The general spirit of the bureaucracy is the secret, the mystery, preserved inwardly by means of the hierarchy and externally as a closed corporation. To make public -the mind and the disposition of the state appears therefore to the bureaucracy as a betrayal of its mystery. Accordingly authority is the principle of its knowledge and being, and the deification of authority is its mentality. But at the very heart of the bureaucracy this spiritualism turns into a crass materialism, the materialism of passive obedience, of trust in authority, the mechanism of an ossified and formalistic behaviour, of fixed principles, conceptions, and traditions. As far as the individual bureaucrat is concerned, the end of the state becomes his private end: a pursuit of higher posts, the building of a career. In the first place, he considers real life to be purely material, for the spirit of this life has its separate existence in the bureaucracy. Thus the bureaucrat must make life as materialistic as possible. Secondly, real life is material for the bureaucrat, i.e . in so far as it becomes an object of bureaucratic action, because his spirit is prescribed for him, his end lies outside of him, his existence is the existence of the bureau. The state, then, exists only as various bureau-minds whose connection consists of subordination and dumb obedience. Real knowledge appears to be devoid of content just as real life appears to be dead, for this imaginary knowledge and life pass for what is real and essential. Thus the bureaucrat must use the real state Jesuitically, no matter whether this Jesuitism be conscious or unconscious. But given that his antithesis is knowledge, it is inevitable that he likewise attain to self-consciousness and, at that moment, deliberate Jesuitism. While the bureaucracy is on one hand this crass materialism, it manifests its crass spiritualism in its will to do everything, i.e., in its making the will the causa prima, for it is pure active existence which receives its content from without; thus it can manifest its existence only through forming and restricting this content. The bureaucrat has the world as a mere object of his action.</p> <p>When Hegel calls the Executive power the objective aspect of the sovereignty residing In the crown, it is precisely in the same sense that the Catholic Church was the real existence of the sovereignty, content, and spirit of the Blessed Trinity. In the bureaucracy the identity of the state's interest and the particular private aim is established such that the state's interest becomes a particular private aim opposed to the other private aims.</p> <p>The abolition [Aufhebung] of the bureaucracy can consist only in the universal interest becoming really - and not, as with Hegel, becoming purely in thought, in abstraction - particular interest; and this is possible only through the particular interest really becoming universal. Hegel starts from an unreal opposition and thereby brings it to a merely imaginary identity which, in fact, is itself all the more contradictory. Such an identity is the bureaucracy.</p> <p>Now let's follow his development in its particulars.</p> <p>The sole philosophical statement which Hegel makes concerning the Executive is that of the 'subsuming' of the individual and particular under the universal, etc.</p> <p>Hegel is satisfied with that. On one hand, the category of 'subsumption' of the particular, etc. This category must be actualised. Now, he picks anyone of the empirical existences of the Prussian or Modern state (just as it is), which among other things actualises this category even though this category does not express its specific nature. Applied mathematics is also a subsuming of the particular, etc. Hegel doesn't enquire whether this is the rational, the adequate mode of subsumption. He holds fast only to the one category and is satisfied with finding a corresponding existence for it. Hegel gives his logic a political body; he does not give the logic of the political body (§ 287).</p> <p>On the relationship of the Corporations and societies to the executive we are told first of all that it is required that their administration (the nomination of their magistracy) generally be effected by a mixture of popular election by those interested with appointment and ratification by higher authority. The mixed choice of administrators of the societies and Corporations would thus be the first relationship between civil society and state or executive, their first identity (§ 288). This identity, according to Hegel himself, is quite superficial, a mixtum compositum, a mixture. To the degree that this identity is superficial, opposition is sharp. It is the business of these officials (namely the officials of the Corporations, societies, etc.) to manage the private property and interests of these particular spheres and, from that Point of view, their authority rests on the confidence of their commonalties and professional equals. On the other hand, however, these circles of particular interests must be subordinated to the higher interests of the state. From this results the so-called 'mixed choice'.</p> <p>The administration of the Corporation thus has within it the opposition of private property and interest of the particular spheres against the higher interest of the state: opposition between private property and state.</p> <p>We need not emphasise that the resolution of this opposition in the mixed choice is a simple accommodation, a treaty, an avowal of the unresolved dualism which is itself a dualism, a mixture. The particular interests of the Corporations and societies have a dualism within their own sphere, which likewise shapes the character of their administration.</p> <p>However, the crucial opposition stands out first in the relationship of these 'particular interests which are common to everyone', etc., which 'lie outside the absolutely universal interest of the state proper', and this 'absolutely universal interest of the state proper'. But the first instance once again, it is within this sphere.</p> <p>The maintenance of the state's universal interest, and of legality, in this sphere of particular rights, and the work of bringing these rights back to the universal, require to be superintended by holders of the executive power, by (a) the executive civil servants, and (b) the higher advisory officials (who are organised into committees). These converge in their supreme heads who are in direct contact with the monarch. (§ 289)</p> <p>Incidentally, let us draw attention to the construction of the executive committees, which are unknown, for example, in France. To the same extent that Hegel adduces these officials as advisory it is certainly obvious that they are organised into committees.</p> <p>Hegel has the state proper, the executive, move into the management of the state's universal interest and of legality, etc. within civil society via holders [of the executive power]; and according to him these executive office holders, the executive civil servants are in reality the true representation of the state, not 'of' but 'against' civil society. The opposition between state and civil society is thus fixed; the state does not reside within but outside of civil society; it affects civil society merely through office holders to whom is entrusted the management of the state within this sphere. The opposition is not overcome by means of these office holders but has become a legal and fixed opposition. The state becomes something alien to the nature of civil society; it becomes this nature's otherworldly realm of deputies which makes claims against civil society. The police, the judiciary, and the administration are not deputies of civil society itself, which manages its own general interest in and through them. Rather, they are office holders of the state whose purpose is to manage the state in opposition to civil society. Hegel clarifies this opposition further in the candid Remark to § 289 which we examined earlier.</p> <p>The nature of the executive functions is that they are objective and ... have been explicitly fixed by previous decisions. (§ 291)</p> <p>Does Hegel conclude from this that [the executive functions] all the more easily require no hierarchy of knowledge, that they could be executed perfectly by civil society itself? On the contrary.</p> <p>He makes the profound observation that they are to be executed by individuals, and that between them and these individuals there is no immediate natural link. This is an allusion to the crown, which is nothing but the natural power of arbitrary choice, and thus can be born. The crown is nothing but the representative of the natural moment in the will, the dominion of physical nature in the state.</p> <p>The executive civil servants are distinguished by the fact that they earn their appointments; hence they are distinguished essentially from the sovereign.</p> <p>The objective factor in their appointment (namely, to the State's business) is knowledge (subjective caprice lacks this factor) and proof of ability. Such proof guarantees that the state will get what it requires; and since it is the sole condition of appointment, it also guarantees to every citizen the chance of joining the class of civil servants [dem allgemeinen Stande].</p> <p>The chance which every citizen has to become a civil servant is thus the second affirmative relationship between civil society and state, the second identity. Like the first it is also of a quite superficial and dualistic nature. Every Catholic has the chance to become a priest (i.e., to separate himself from the laity as well as the world). Does the clergy on that account face the Catholic any less as an opposite power? That each has the possibility of gaining the privilege of another sphere proves only that his own sphere is not the actuality of this privilege.</p> <p>In a true state it is not a question of the possibility of every citizen to dedicate himself to the universal in the form of a particular class, but of the capability of the universal class to be really universal, i.e., to be the class of every citizen. But Hegel proceeds from the postulate of the pseudo-universal, the illusory universal class, universality fixed in the form of a particular class.</p> <p>The identity which he has constructed between civil society and the state is the identity of two hostile armies in which each soldier has the 'chance' to become through desertion a member of the other hostile army; and in this Hegel indeed correctly describes the present empirical state of affairs.</p> <p>It is the same with his construction of the examinations. In a rational state, taking an examination belongs more properly to becoming a shoe-maker than an executive civil servant because shoemaking is a skill without which one can be a good citizen of the state, a social man; but the necessary state knowledge is a condition without which a person in the state lives outside the state, is cut off from himself, deprived of air. The examination is nothing other than a masonic rite, the legal recognition of the privileged knowledge of state citizenship.</p> <p>The link of state office and individual, this objective bond between the knowledge of civil society and the knowledge of the state, in other words the examination, is nothing but the bureaucratic baptism of knowledge, the official recognition of the transubstantiation of profane into holy knowledge (it goes without saying that in the case of every examination the examiner knows all). No one ever heard of the Greek or Roman statesmen taking an examination. But then what is a Roman statesmen even as against a Prussian official!</p> <p>In addition to the objective bond of the individual with the state office, in addition, that is, to the examination, there is another bond - royal caprice:</p> <p>Since the objective qualification for the civil service is not genius (as it is for work, an artist, for example), there is of necessity an indefinite plurality of eligible candidates whose relative excellence is not determinable with absolute precision. The selection of one of the candidates, his nomination to office, and the grant to him of full authority to transact public business-all this, as the linking of two things, a man and his office, which in relation to each other must always be fortuitous, is the subjective aspect of election to office, and it must lie with the crown as the power in the state which is sovereign and has the last word. [§ 292.]</p> <p>The prince is at all times the representative of chance or contingency.</p> <p>Besides the objective moment of the bureaucratic confession of faith (the examination) there belongs in addition the subjective [moment] of the royal favour, in order that the faith yield fruit.</p> <p>The particular public functions which the monarch entrusts to officials constitute one part of the objective aspect of the sovereignty residing in the crown. (The monarch distributes and entrusts the particular state activities as functions to the officials, i.e., he distributes the state among the bureaucrats, entrusts it like the holy Roman Church entrusts consecrations Monarchy is a system of emanation; the monarch leases out the functions of the state.) Here Hegel distinguishes for the first time the objective aspect front the subjective aspect of the sovereignty residing in the Crown. Prior to this he mixed the two together. The sovereignty residing in the crown is taken here in a clearly mystical way, just as theologians find the personal God in nature. Earlier it still meant that the crown is the subjective aspect of the sovereignty residing in the state (§ 293).</p> <p>In § 294 Hegel develops the salary of the civil servants out of the Idea. Here the real identity of civil society and the state is established in the salary of the civil servants, or in the fact that civil service also guarantees security in empirical existence. The wage of the civil servant is the highest identity which Hegel constructs out of all this. The transformation of the activities of the state into ministries presupposes the separation of the state from society.</p> <p>When Hegel says in the Remark to § 294:</p> <p>What the service of the state. . . requires is that men shall forgo the selfish and capricious satisfaction of their subjective ends, (this is required in the case of every post of service) and by this very sacrifice they acquire the right to find their satisfaction in, but only in, the dutiful discharge of their public functions. In this fact, so far as public business is concerned, there lies the link between universal and particular interests which constitutes both the concept of the state and its inner stability,</p> <p>this holds good (1.) of every servant, and (2.) it is correct that the salary of the civil servants constitutes the inner stability of the most modern monarchies. In contrast to the member of civil society only the civil servants existence is guaranteed.</p> <p>At this point Hegel cannot fail to see that he has constructed the executive as an antithesis to civil society, and indeed as a dominant extreme. How does he now establish a condition of Identity?</p> <p>According to § 295 the security of the state and its subjects against the misuse [den Missbrauch] of power by ministers and their officials lies partly in their hierarchical organisation (as if the hierarchy itself were not the principal abuse [der Hauptmissbrauch], and the matching personal sins of the civil servants were not it all to be compared with their inevitable hierarchical sins; the hierarchy punishes the civil servant to the extent that he sins against the hierarchy or commits a sin in excess of the hierarchy; but it takes him under its protection when the hierarchy sins through him; moreover the hierarchy is only with great difficulty convinced of the sins of its member) and in the authority given to societies and Corporations, because in itself this is a barrier against the intrusion of subjective caprice into the power entrusted to a civil servant, and it completes front below the state control (as if this control were not exercised with the outlook of the bureaucratic hierarchy) winch does not reach down as far as the conduct of individuals.</p> <p>Thus the second guarantee against the caprice of the bureaucracy lies in the privileges of the Corporations.</p> <p>Thus if we ask Hegel what is civil society's protection against the bureaucracy, he answers:</p> <p>1. The hierarchal organisation of the bureaucracy. Control. This, that the adversary is himself bound hand and foot, and if he is like a hammer vis-a-vis those below he is like all anvil in relation to those above. Now, where is the protection against the hierarchy? The lesser evil will surely be abolished through the greater inasmuch as it vanishes in comparison with it.</p> <p>2. Conflict, the unresolved conflict between bureaucracy and Corporation. Struggle, the possibility of struggle, is the guarantee against being overcome. Later (§ 297) in addition to this Hegel adds as guarantee the 'institutions [of] the sovereign working ... at the top', by which is to be understood, once again, the hierarchy.</p> <p>However Hegel further adduces two moments (§ 296):</p> <p>In the civil servant himself, something which is supposed to humanise him and make dispassionate, upright, and polite demeanour customary, namely, direct education in thought and ethical conduct, which is said to hold 'the mental counterpoise' to the mechanical character of his knowledge and actual work. As if the mechanical character of his bureaucratic knowledge and his actual work did not hold the 'counterpoise' to his education in thought and ethical conduct. And will not his actual mind and his actual work as substance triumph over the accident of his prior endowment? His office is indeed his substantial situation and his bread and butter. Fine, except that Hegel sets direct education in thought and ethical conduct against the mechanism of bureaucratic knowledge and work! The man within the civil servant is supposed to secure the civil servant against himself. What a unity! Mental counterpoise. What a dualistic category!</p> <p>Hegel further adduces the size of the state, which in Russia certainly doesn't guarantee against the caprice of the executive civil servants, and in any case is a circumstance which lies outside the 'essence' of the bureaucracy.</p> <p>Hegel has developed the 'Executive' as bureaucratic officialdom [Staatsbediententum].</p> <p>Here in the sphere of the 'absolutely universal interest of the state proper' we find nothing but unresolved conflict. The civil servants' examination and livelihood constitute the final synthesis.</p> <p>Hegel adduces the impotency of the bureaucracy, its conflict with the Corporation, as its final consecration.</p> <p>In § 297 an identity is established in so far as 'civil servants and the members of the executive constitute the greater part of the middle class'. Hegel praises this 'middle class' as the pillar of the state so far as honesty and intelligence are concerned (in the Addition to this paragraph).</p> <p>It is a prime concern of the state that a middle class should be developed, but this can be done only if the state is an organic unity like the one described here, i.e., it can be done only by giving authority to spheres of particular interests, which are relatively independent, and by appointing an army of officials whose personal arbitrariness is broken against such authorised bodies.</p> <p>To be sure the people can appear as one class, the middle class, only in such an organic unity; but is something that keeps itself going by means of the counterbalancing of privileges an organic unity? The executive power is the one most difficult to develop; it, much more than the legislature, belongs to the entire people.</p> <p>Later (in the Remark to § 308) Hegel expresses the proper spirit of the bureaucracy when he characterises it as 'business routine' and the 'horizon of a restricted sphere'.</p> <p>Part 4: The Legislature §§ 298 - 303</p> <p> (c) The Legislature<br class='autobr' /> § 298. The legislature is concerned (a) with the laws as such in so far as they require fresh and extended determination; and (b) with the content of home affairs affecting the entire state (a very general expression). The legislature is itself a part of the constitution which is presupposed by it and to that extent lies absolutely outside the sphere directly determined by it; nonetheless, the constitution becomes progressively more mature in the course of the further elaboration of the laws and the advancing character of the universal business of government.</p> <p>Above all it is noteworthy that Hegel emphasises the way in which the legislature is itself a part of the constitution which is presupposed by it and lies absolutely outside the sphere directly determined by it, since he had made this statement neither of the Crown nor of the Executive, for both of which it is equally true. But only with the Legislature does Hegel construct the constitution in its entirety, and thus he is unable to presuppose it. However, we recognise his profundity precisely in the way he always begins with and accentuates the antithetical character of the determinate elements (as they exist in our states).</p> <p>The legislature is itself a part of the constitution which lies absolutely outside the sphere directly determined by it. But the constitution is certainly not self-generating. The laws which 'require fresh and extended determination' must have received formulation. A legislature must exist or have existed before and outside of the constitution. There must exist a legislature outside of the actual empirical, established legislature. But, Hegel will answer, we presuppose an existing state. Hegel, however, is a philosopher of right, and develops the generic idea of the state [die Staatsgattung]. He is not allowed to measure the idea by what exists; he must measure what exists by the idea.</p> <p>The collision is simple. The legislature is the power which is to organise the universal. it is the power of the constitution. It extends beyond the constitution.</p> <p>On the other hand, however, the legislature is a constitutional power. Thus it is subsumed under the constitution. The constitution is law for the legislature. It has given laws to the legislature and continues to do so. The legislature is only legislature within the constitution, and the constitution would stand hors de loi if it stood outside the legislature. Voilà la collision! In recent French history much nibbling away [at the constitution] has occurred.</p> <p>How does Hegel resolve this antinomy?</p> <p>First of all it is said that the constitution is presupposed by the legislature and to that extent it lies absolutely outside the sphere directly determined by it. 'Nonetheless' - nonetheless in the course of the further elaboration of the laws and the advancing character of the universal business of government it becomes progressively more mature.</p> <p>That is to say, then: directly, the constitution lies outside the sphere of the legislature; indirectly, however, the legislature modifies the constitution. The legislature does in an indirect way what it neither can nor may do in a direct way. It picks the constitution apart enti détail, since it cannot alter it en gros. It does by virtue of the nature of things and circumstances what according to the constitution it was not supposed to do. it does materially and in fact what it does not do formally, legally, or constitutionally.</p> <p>With that, Hegel has not resolved the antinomy; he has simply transformed it into another antinomy. He has placed the real effect of the legislature, its constitutional effect, in contradiction with its constitutionally determined character. The opposition between constitution and legislature remains. Hegel has defined the factual and the legal action of the legislature as a contradiction - the contradiction between what the legislature should be and what it really is, between what it believes itself to be doing and what it really does.</p> <p>How can Hegel present this contradiction as the truth? 'The advancing character of the 'universal business of government' enlightens us just as little, for it is precisely this advancing character which needs explanation.</p> <p>In the Addition [to this paragraph] Hegel contributes hardly anything to the solution of these problems. He does, however, bring them more into focus:</p> <p>The constitution must in and by itself be the fixed and recognised ground on which the legislature stands, and for this reason it must not first be constructed. Thus the constitution is, but just as essentially it becomes, i.e., it advances and matures. This advance is an alteration which is imperceptible and which lacks the form of alteration.</p> <p>That is to say, according to the law (illusion) the constitution is, but according to reality (truth) it becomes. According to its determinate character the constitution is unalterable; but it really is changed, only this change is unconscious and lacks the form of alteration. The appearance contradicts the essence. The appearance is the conscious law of the constitution, and the essence is its unconscious law, which contradicts the other. What is in the nature of the thing is not found in the law. Rather, the opposite is in the law.</p> <p>Is it the fact, then, that in the state - which, according to Hegel, is the highest existence of freedom, the existence of self-conscious reason - not law, the existence of freedom, but rather blind natural necessity governs? And if the law of the thing is recognised as contradicting the legal definition, why not acknowledge the law of the thing, in this case reason, ,is the law of the state? And how then consciously retain this dualism? Hegel wants always to present the state as the actualisation of free mind; however, re vera he resolves all difficult conflicts through a natural necessity which is the antithesis of freedom. Thus, the transition of particular interest into universal interest is not a conscious law of the state, but is mediated through chance and ratified contrary to consciousness. And in the state Hegel wants everywhere the realisation of free will! (Here we see Hegel's substantial viewpoint.)</p> <p>Hegel uses as examples to illustrate the gradual alteration of the constitution the conversion of the private wealth of the German princes and their families into state property, and the conversion of the German emperors' personal administration of justice into an administration through delegates. His choice of examples is unfortunate. in the first case, for instance, the transition happened only in such a way that all state property was transformed into royal private property.</p> <p>Moreover, these changes are particular. Certainly, entire state constitutions have changed such that as new requirements gradually arose the old broke down; but for the new constitution a real revolution was always necessity.</p> <p>Hence the advance from one state of affairs to another, Hegel concluded [in the Addition], is tranquil in appearance and unnoticed. In this way a constitution changes over a long period of time into something quite different from what it was originally.</p> <p>The category of gradual transition is, first of all, historically false; and secondly, it explains nothing.</p> <p>In order not only that the constitution be altered, thus that this illusory appearance not be in the end forcefully shattered, but also that man do consciously what he is otherwise forced to do unconsciously by the nature of the thing, it is necessary that the movement of the constitution, that progress, be made the principle of the constitution, thus that the real corner stone of the constitution, the people, be made the principle of the constitution. Progress itself is then the constitution.</p> <p>Should the constitution itself, therefore, belong within the domain of the legislature? This question can be posed only (1) if the political state exists as the pure formalism of the actual state, if the political state is a domain apart, if the political state exists as constitution; (2) if the legislature is of a source different than the executive etc.</p> <p>The legislature produced the French Revolution. In general, when it has appeared in its special capacity as the ruling element, the legislature has produced the great organic, universal revolutions. It has not attacked the constitution, but a particular antiquated constitution, precisely because the legislature was the representative of the people, i.e., of the species-will [des Gattungswillens]. The executive, on the other hand, produced the small, retrograde revolutions, the reactions. It revolted not against an old constitution in favour of a new one, but against the constitution as such, precisely because the executive was the representative of the particular will, subjective caprice, the magical part of the will.</p> <p>Posed correctly, the question is simply this: Does a people have the right to give itself a new constitution? The answer must be an unqualified 'yes!' because the constitution becomes a practical illusion the moment it ceases to be a true expression of the people's will.</p> <p>The collision between the constitution and the legislature is nothing more than a conflict of the constitution with itself, a contradiction in the concept of the constitution.</p> <p>The constitution is nothing more than an accommodation between the political and non-political state; hence it is necessarily in itself a treaty between essentially heterogeneous powers. Here, then, it is impossible for the law to declare that one of these powers, which is a part of the constitution, is to have the right to modify the constitution itself, which is the whole.</p> <p>In so far as we speak of the constitution as a particular thing, however, it must be considered a part of the whole.</p> <p>In so far as the constitution is understood to be the universal and fundamental determinations of the rational will, then clearly every people (state) presupposes this and must form it to its political credo. Actually, this is a matter of knowledge rather than of will. The will of a people can no more exceed the laws of reason than can the will of an individual. In the case of an irrational people one cannot speak at all of a rational organisation of the state. In any case, here in the philosophy of right we are concerned with the species-will.</p> <p>The legislature does not make the law, it merely discovers and formulates it.</p> <p>The resolution of this conflict has been attempted by differentiating between assemblée constituante and assemblée constituée.</p> <p>§ 299. Legislative business (the concerns of the legislature) is more precisely determined in relation to private individuals, under these two heads: (a) provision by the state for their well being and happiness, and [b] the exaction of services from them. The former comprises the laws dealing with all sorts of private rights, the rights of communities, Corporations, and organisations affecting the entire state, and further it indirectly (see § 298) comprises the whole of the constitution. As for the services to be exacted, it is only if these are reduced to terms of money, the really existent and universal value of both things and services, that they can be fixed justly and at the same time in such a way that any particular tasks and services which an individual may perform come to be mediated through his own arbitrary will.</p> <p>Concerning this determination of the legislature's business, Hegel himself notes, in the Remark to this paragraph:</p> <p>The proper object of universal legislation may be distinguished in a general way from the proper function of administrative officials or of some kind of state regulation, in that the content of the former is wholly universal, i.e., determinate laws, while it is what is particular in content which falls to the latter, together with ways and means of enforcing the law. This distinction, however, is not a hard and fast one, because a law, by being a law, is ab initio something more than a mere command in general terms (such as 'Thou shalt not kill'. . . ). A law must in itself be something determinate, but the more determinate it is, the more readily are its terms capable of being carried out as they stand. At the same time, however, to give to laws such a fully detailed determinacy would give them empirical features subject inevitably to alteration in the course of their being actually carried out, and this would contravene their character as laws. The organic unity of the powers of the state itself implies that it is one single mind which both firmly establishes the universal and also brings it into its determinate actuality and carries it out.</p> <p>But it is precisely this organic unity which Hegel has failed to construct. The various powers each have a different principle, although at the same time they are all equally real. To take refuge from their real conflict in an imaginary organic unity, instead of developing the various powers as moments of an organic unity, is therefore an empty, mystical evasion.</p> <p>The first unresolved collision was that between the constitution as a whole and the legislature. The second is that between the legislature and the executive, i.e., between the law and its execution.</p> <p>The second determination found in this paragraph [§ 299] is that the only service the state exacts from individuals is money.</p> <p>The reasons Hegel gives for this are:</p> <p>1. money is the really existent and universal value of both things and services;</p> <p>2. the services to be exacted can be fixed justly only by means of this reduction;</p> <p>3. only in this way can the services be fixed in such a way that the particular tasks and services which an individual may perform conic to be mediated through his own arbitrary will. Hegel notes in the Remark [to this paragraph]:</p> <p>ad. 1. In the state it may happen, to begin with, that the numerous aptitudes, possessions, pursuits, and talents of its members, together with the infinitely varied richness of life intrinsic to these - all of which are at the same time linked with their owner's mentality - are not subject to direct levy by the state. It lays claim only to a single form of riches, namely money. (Services requisitioned for the defence of the state in war arise for the first time in connection with the duty considered in the next sub-division of this book.) We shall consider personal duty with regard to the military only later - not because of the following sub-division, but for other reasons. In fact, however, money is not one particular type of wealth amongst others, but the universal form of all types so far as they are expressed in an external embodiment and so can be taken as 'things'.</p> <p>In our day, it continues in the Addition, the state purchases what it requires.</p> <p>ad 2. Only by being translated into terms of this extreme culmination of externality (sc. wherein riches are transformed into the externality of existence, in which they can be grasped as an object) can services exacted by the state be fixed quantitatively and so justly and equitably.</p> <p>The Addition reads: By means of money, however, the justice of equality can be achieved much more efficiently. Otherwise, if assessment depended on concrete ability, a talented man would be more heavily taxed than an untalented one.</p> <p>ad 3. In Plato's Republic, the Guardians are left to allot individuals to their particular classes and impose on them their particular tasks ... Under the feudal monarchies the services required from vassals were equally indeterminate, but they had also to serve in their particular capacity, e.g. as judges. The same particular character pertains to tasks imposed in the East and in Egypt in connection with colossal architectural undertakings, and so forth. In these circumstances the principle of subjective freedom is lacking, i.e., the principle that the individual's substantive activity - which in any case becomes something particular in content in services like those mentioned - shall be mediated through his particular volition. This is a right which can be secured only when the demand for service takes the form of a demand for something of universal value, and it is this right which has brought with it this conversion of the state's demands into demands for cash.</p> <p>The Addition reads:</p> <p>In our day, the state purchases what it requires. This may at first sight seem ail abstract, heartless, and dead state of affairs, and for the state to be satisfied with indirect services may also look like decadence in the state. But the principle of the modern state requires that the whole of an individual's activity shall be mediated through his Will ... But nowadays respect for subjective freedom is publicly recognised precisely in the fact that the state lays hold of a man only by that which is capable of being held.</p> <p>Do what you want, pay what you must.</p> <p>The beginning of the Addition reads:</p> <p>The two sides of the constitution bear respectively on the rights and the services of individuals. Services are now almost entirely reduced to money payments, and military service is now almost the only personal one exacted.</p> <p>§300. In the legislature as a whole the other powers are the first two moments which are effective, (i) the monarchy as that to which ultimate decisions belong: (ii) the executive as the advisory body since it is the moment possessed of [a] a concrete knowledge and oversight of the whole state in its numerous facets and the actual principles firmly established within it, and [b] a knowledge in particular of what the state's power needs. The last moment in the legislature is the Estates.</p> <p>The monarchy and the executive are ... the legislature. If, however, the legislature is the whole, then the monarchy and the executive must accordingly be moments of the legislature. The supervening Estates are the legislature merely, or the legislature in distinction from the monarchy and the executive.</p> <p>§ 301. The Estates have the function of bringing public affairs into existence not only implicitly, but also actually, i.e., of bringing into existence the moment of subjective formal freedom, the public consciousness as an empirical universal, of which the thoughts and opinions of the Many are particulars.</p> <p>The Estates are civil society's deputation to the state, to which it [i.e., civil society] is opposed as the 'Many'. The Many must for a moment deal consciously with universal affairs as if they were their own, as objects of public consciousness, which, according to Hegel, is nothing other than the empirical universal, of which the thoughts and opinions of the Many are particulars. (And in fact, it is no different in modern or constitutional monarchies.) It is significant that Hegel, who shows such great respect for the state-mind [dem Staatsgeist] - the ethical spirit, state-consciousness - absolutely disdains it when it faces him in actual empirical form.</p> <p>This is the enigma of mysticism. The same fantastic abstraction that rediscovers state-consciousness in the degenerate form of bureaucracy, a hierarchy of knowledge, and that uncritically accepts this incomplete existence as the actual and full-valued existence - the same mystical abstraction admits with equanimity that the actual empirical state-mind, public consciousness, is a mere potpourri of the 'thoughts and opinions of the Many'. As it imputes to the bureaucracy an essence which is foreign to it, so it grants to the actuality of that essence only the inferior form of appearance. Hegel idealises the bureaucracy and empiricises public consciousness. He can treat actual public consciousness very much à part precisely because he has treated the à part consciousness as the public consciousness. He need concern himself all the less with the actual existence of the state-mind in that he believes he has sufficiently realised it in its soi-disant existences. So long is the state-mind mystically haunted the forecourt it received many plaudits. Now that we have caught it in persona it is barely respected.</p> <p>'The Estates have the function of bringing public affairs into existence not only implicitly [an sich], but also actually [für sich].' And indeed it comes into existence actually as the public consciousness, as 'an empirical universal, of which the thoughts and opinions of the Many arc particulars'.</p> <p>The process in which 'public affairs' becomes subject, and thus gains autonomy, is here presented as a moment of the life-process of public affairs. Instead of having subjects objectifying themselves in public affairs Hegel has public affairs becoming the subject. Subjects do not need public affairs as their true affairs, but public affairs needs subjects for its formal existence. It is an affair of public affairs that it exist also as subject.</p> <p>Here the difference between the 'being-in-itself' [Ansichsein] and the 'being-for-itself' [Fürsichsein] of public affairs must be especially considered.</p> <p>Public affairs already exists 'in-itself' [i.e., implicitly] as the business of the executive etc. Thus, public affairs exists without actually being public affairs; nothing less, for it is not the affair of civil society. It has already found its essential existence, its being-in-itself. The fact that public affairs now actually becomes public consciousness, or empirical universal, is purely formal and, as it were, only a symbolic coming to actuality. The formal or empirical existence of public affairs is separated from its substantial existence. The truth of the matter is that public affairs as being-in-itself is not actually public, and actual empirical public affairs is only formal.</p> <p>Hegel separates content and form, being-in-itself and being-for-itself, and allows the latter the superficial status of formal moment. The content is complete and exists in many forms which are not the forms of this content; while, clearly, the form which is supposed to be the actual form of the content doesn't have the actual content for its content.</p> <p>Public affairs is complete without being the actual affairs of the people. The actual affairs of the people have been established without the activity of the people. The Estates are the illusory existence of the affairs of the state as being an affair of the people. The illusion is that public affairs are public affairs, or that truly public affairs are the affair of the people. It has come to the point in our states as well as in the Hegelian philosophy of right where the tautological sentence, 'The public affairs are the public affairs', can appear only as an illusion of practical consciousness. The Estates are the political illusion of civil society. Subjective freedom appears in Hegel as formal freedom (it is important, however, that what is free be done freely, that freedom doesn't prevail as an unconscious natural instinct of society), precisely because Hegel has not presented objective freedom as the actualisation, the activity, of subjective freedom. Because he has given the presumed or actual content of freedom a mystical bearer, the actual subject of freedom takes on a formal meaning. The separation of the in-itself and the for-itself, of substance and subject, is abstract mysticism.</p> <p>Hegel, in his Remark to § 301 presents the Estates quite rightly as something 'formal' and 'illusory'.</p> <p>Both the knowledge and the will of the Estates are treated partly as unimportant and partly as suspect; that is to say, the Estates make no significant contribution.</p> <p>1. The idea uppermost in men's minds when they speak about the necessity or the expediency of 'summoning the Estates' is generally something of this sort: (i) The deputies of the people, or even the people themselves, must know best what is in their best interest, - .and (ii) their will for its promotion is undoubtedly the most disinterested. So far as the first of these points is concerned, however, the truth is that if 'people' means a particular section of the citizens, then it means precisely that section which does not know what it wills. To know what one wills, and still more to know what the absolute will, Reason, wills, is the fruit of profound apprehension (which is found, no doubt, in the bureaus) and insight, precisely the things which are not popular.</p> <p>Further along in the paragraph we read the following about the Estates themselves:</p> <p>The highest civil servants necessarily have a deeper and more comprehensive insight into the nature of the state's organisation and requirements. They arc also more habituated to the business of government and have greater skill in it, so that even without the Estates they are able to do what is best, just as they also continually have to do while the Estates are in session.</p> <p>And it goes without saying that this is perfectly true in the organisation described by Hegel.</p> <p>2. As for the conspicuously good will for the general welfare which the Estates are supposed to possess, it has been pointed out already. . . that to regard the will of the executive as bad, or as less good [than that of the ruled] is a presupposition characteristic of the rabble or of the negative outlook generally. This presupposition might at once be answered on its own ground by the countercharge that the Estates start from isolated individuals, from a private point of view, from particular interests, and so are inclined to devote their activities to these at the expense of the general interests, while per contra the other moments in the power of the state explicitly take up the standpoint of the state from the start and devote themselves to the universal end.</p> <p>Therefore the knowledge and will of the Estates are partly superfluous and partly suspect. The people do not know what they want. III the possession of political knowledge [Staatswssenschaft] the Estates are not equal to the officials, who have a monopoly on it. The Estates are superfluous for the execution of public affairs. The officials can carry out this execution without the Estates; moreover they must, in spite of the Estates, do what is best. Thus the Estates, with regard to their content, are pure superfluity. Their existence, therefore, is a pure formality in the most literal sense.</p> <p>Furthermore, the sentiment of the Estates, their will, is suspect, for they start from the private point of view and private interests. In truth, private interest is their public affairs, not public affairs their private interest. But what a way for public affairs to obtain form as public affairs - i.e., through a will which doesn't know what it wills, or at least lacks any special knowledge of t he universal, a will, furthermore, whose actual content is an opposing interest!</p> <p>In modern states, as in Hegel's Philosophy of Right, the conscious, true actuality of public affairs is merely formal, or only what is formal constitutes actual public affairs.</p> <p>Hegel is not to be blamed for depicting the nature of the modern state as it is, but rather for presenting what is as the essence of the state. The claim that the rational is actual is contradicted precisely by an irrational actuality, which everywhere is the contrary of what it asserts and asserts the contrary of what it is.</p> <p>Instead of showing how public affairs exists for-itself, 'subjectively, and thus actually as such', and that it also has the form of public affairs, Hegel merely shows that formlessness is its subjectivity; and a form without content must be formless. The form which public affairs obtains in a state which is not the state of public affairs can be nothing but a non-form, a self-deceiving, self-contradicting form, a form which is pure appearance [eine Scheinform] and which will betray itself as this appearance.</p> <p>Only for the sake of logic does Hegel want the luxury of the Estates. The being-for-itself of public affairs as empirical universal must have an existence [ein Dasein]. Hegel does not search for an adequate actualisation of the being-for-itself of public affairs, but contents himself with finding an empirical existent which can be dissolved into this logical category. This is the Estates. And Hegel himself does not fail to note how pitiful and full of contradiction this existent is. Yet he still reproaches ordinary consciousness for being discontent with this satisfaction of logic, for being unwilling to see actuality dissolved into logic by this arbitrary abstraction, for wanting logic, rather, to be transformed into concrete objectivity.</p> <p>I say arbitrary abstraction, for since the executive power wills, knows, and actualises public affairs, arises from the people, and is an empirical plurality (Hegel himself tells us that it is not a totality), why should we not be able to characterise the executive as the 'being-for-itself of public affairs'? Or, again, why not the Estates as their being-in-itself, since it is only in the executive that [public affairs] receives illumination, determinacy, execution, and independence?</p> <p>The true antithesis, however, is this: public affairs must somewhere be represented in the state as actual, and thus as empirical public affairs; it must appear somewhere in the crown and robes of the universal, whereby the universal automatically becomes a fiction, an illusion.</p> <p>Here it is a question of the opposition of the universal as 'form', in the form of universality, and the universal as 'content'.</p> <p>In science, for example, an individual can fully perform public affairs, and it is always individuals who do so. But public affairs become actually public only when they are no longer the affair of an individual but of society. This changes not only the form but also the content. In this case, however, it is a question of the state in which the people itself constitutes the public affairs, a question of the will which has its true existence as species-will only in the self-conscious will of the people, and, moreover, a question of the idea of the state.</p> <p>The modern state, in which public affairs and their pursuit is a monopoly while monopolies are the actual public affairs, has effected the peculiar device of appropriating public affairs as a pure form. (in fact, only the form is public affairs.) With that, the modern state has found the appropriate form for its content, which only appears to be actual public affairs.</p> <p>The constitutional state is the state in which the state-interest is only formally the actual interest of the people, but is nevertheless present as a distinct form alongside of the actual state. Here the state-interest has again received formal actuality as the people's interest; but it is to have only this formal actuality. It has become ) formality, the haut gout of the life of the people - a ceremony. The Estates are the sanctioned, legal lie of constitutional states, the lie that the state is the people's interest or the people the interest of the state. This lie will betray itself in its content. The lie has established itself as the legislature precisely because the legislature has the universal as its content and, being more an affair of knowledge than of will, is the metaphysical power of the state; whereas had the same lie established itself as the executive etc., it would have had either immediately to dissolve itself or be transformed into a truth. The metaphysical power of the state was the most likely seat for the metaphysical, universal illusion of the state.</p> <p>[Remark to § 301.] The Estates are a guarantee of the general welfare and public freedom. A little reflection will show that this guarantee does not lie in their particular power of insight ... the guarantee lies on the contrary [a] in the additional (!!) insight of the deputies, insight in the first place into the activity of such officials as are not immediately under the eye of the higher functionaries of state, and in particular into the more pressing and more specialised needs and deficiencies which are directly in their view; [b] in the fact that the anticipation of criticism from the Many, particularly of public criticism, has the effect of inducing officials to devote their best attention beforehand to their duties and the schemes under consideration, and to deal with these only in accordance with the purest motives. This same compulsion is effective also on the members of the Estates themselves.</p> <p>As for the general guarantee which is supposed to lie peculiarly in the Estates, each of the other political institutions shares with the Estates in being a guarantee of public welfare and rational freedom, and some of these institutions, as for instance the sovereignty of the monarch, hereditary succession to the throne, the judicial system etc., guarantee these things far more effectively than the Estates can. Hence the specific function which the concept assigns to the Estates is to be sought in the fact that in them the subjective moment in universal freedom - the private judgment and private will of the sphere called 'civil society' in this book - comes into existence integrally related to the state. This moment is a determination of the Idea once the Idea has developed to totality, a moment arising as a result of an inner necessity not to be confused with external necessities and expediencies. The proof of this follows, like all the rest of our account of the state, from adopting the philosophical point of view.</p> <p>Public, universal freedom is allegedly guaranteed in the other institutions of the state, while the Estates constitute its alleged self-guarantee. [But the fact is] that the people rely more heavily on the Estates, in which the self-assurance of their freedom is thought to be, than on the institutions which are supposed to assure their freedom independent of their own participation, institutions which are supposed to be verifications of their freedom without being manifestations of it. The coordinating function Hegel assigns to the Estates, alongside the other institutions, contradicts the essence of the Estates.</p> <p>Hegel solves the problem by finding the 'specific function which the concept assigns to the Estates' in the fact that in them 'the private judgment and private will ... of civil society... comes into existence integrally related to the state'. It is the reflection of civil society on the state. just as the bureaucrats are delegates of the state to civil society, so the Estates are delegates of civil society to the state. Consequently, it is always a case of transactions of two opposing wills.</p> <p>What is said in the Addition to this paragraph, namely:</p> <p>The attitude of the executive to the Estates should not be essentially hostile, and a belief in the necessity of such hostility is a sad mistake.</p> <p>is a sad truth.</p> <p>'The executive is not a party standing over against another party.' Just the contrary.</p> <p>The taxes voted by the Estates, moreover, are not to be regarded as a present given to the state. On the contrary they are voted in the best interests of the voters themselves.</p> <p>Voting for taxes in a constitutional state is, by the very idea of it, necessarily a present.</p> <p>The real significance of the Estates lies in the fact that it is through them that the state enters the subjective consciousness of the people and that the people begins to participate in the state.</p> <p>This last statement is quite correct. In the Estates the people begins to participate in the state, just as the state enters the people's subjective consciousness as something opposed. But how can Hegel possibly pass off this beginning as the full reality!</p> <p>§ 302. Regarded as a mediating organ, the Estates stand between the government in general on the one hand and the nation broken up into particulars (people and associations) on the other. Their function requires them to possess a political and administrative sense and temper, no less than a sense for the interests of individuals and particular groups. At the same time the significance of their position is that, in common with the organised executive, they are a middle term preventing both the extreme isolation of the power of the crown, which otherwise might seem a mere arbitrary tyranny, and also the isolation of particular interests of persons, societies, and Corporations. Further, and more important, they prevent individuals from having the appearance of a mass or an aggregate and so from acquiring an unorganised opinion and volition and from crystallising into a powerful bloc in opposition to the organised state.</p> <p>On the one hand we have the state and the executive, always taken as identical, and on the other the nation broken up into particulars (people and associations). The Estates stand as a mediating organ between the two. The Estates are the middle term wherein political and administrative sense and temper meet and are to be united with the sense and temper of individuals and particular groups. The identity of these two opposed senses and tempers, in which identity the state was supposed to actually lie, acquires . a symbolic appearance in the Estates. The transaction between state and civil society appears as a particular sphere. The Estates are the synthesis between state and civil society. But how the Estates are to begin to unite in themselves two contradictory tempers is not indicated. The Estates are the established contradiction of the state and civil society within the state. At the same time they are the demand for the dissolution of this contradiction.</p> <p>At the same time the significance of their position is that, in common with the organised executive they are the middle term etc.</p> <p>The Estates not only mediate between the people and the executive, but they also prevent the extreme isolation of the power of the crown, whereby it would appear as mere arbitrary tyranny, and also the isolation of the particular interests etc. Furthermore they prevent individuals from having the appearance of a mass or an aggregate. This mediating function is what the Estates have in common with the organised executive power. In a state in which the position of the Estates prevents individuals from having the appearance of a mass or an aggregate, and so from acquiring an unorganised opinion and volition and from crystallising into a powerful bloc in opposition to the organised state, the organised state exists outside the mass and the aggregate; or, in other words, the mass and aggregate belong to the organisation of the state. But its unorganised opinion and volition is to be prevented from crystallising into an opinion and volition in opposition to the state, through which determinate orientation it would become an organised opinion and volition. At the same time this powerful bloc is to remain powerful only in such a way that understanding remains foreign to it, so that the mass is unable to make a move on its own and can only be moved by the monopolists of the organised state and be exploited as a powerful bloc. Where it is not a matter of the particular interests of persons, societies and Corporations isolating themselves from the state, but rather of the individuals being prevented from having the appearance of a mass or an aggregate and from acquiring an unorganised opinion and volition and from crystallising into a powerful bloc in opposition to the state, precisely then it becomes evident not that a particular interest contradicts the state, but rather that the actual organised universal thought of the mass and aggregate is not the thought of the organised state and cannot find its realisation in the state. What is it then that makes the Estates appear to be the mediation against this extreme? It is merely the isolation of the particular interests of persons, societies and Corporations; or the fact that their isolated interests balance their account with the state through the Estates while, at the same time, the unorganised opinion and volition of a mass or aggregate employed its volition (its activity) in creating the Estates and its opinion in judging their activity, and enjoyed the illusion of its own objectification. The Estates preserve the state from the unorganised aggregate only through the disorganisation of this very aggregate.</p> <p>At the same time, however, the mediation of the Estates is to prevent the isolation of the particular interests of persons, societies and Corporations. This they achieve, first, by coming to an understanding with the interest of the state and, second, by being themselves the political isolation of these particular interests, this isolation as political act, in that through them these isolated interests achieve the rank of the universal.</p> <p>Finally, the Estates are to mediate against the isolation of the power of the crown as an extreme (which otherwise might seem a mere arbitrary tyranny). This is correct in so far as the principle of the power of the crown (arbitrary will) is limited by means of the Estates, at least can operate only in fetters, and in so far as the Estates themselves become a partaker and accessory of the power of the crown.</p> <p>In this way, either the power of the crown ceases to be actually the extreme of the power of the crown (and the power of the crown exists only as an extreme, a one-sidedness, because it is not an organic principle) and becomes a mere appearance of power [eine Scheingewalt], a symbol, or else it loses only the appearance of arbitrary tyranny. The Estates mediate against the isolation of particular interests by presenting this isolation as a political act. They mediate against the isolation of the power of the crown as an extreme partly by becoming themselves a part of that power, partly by making the executive power an extreme.</p> <p>All the contradictions of modern state-organisations converge in the Estates. They mediate in every direction because they are, from every direction, the middle term.</p> <p>It should be noted that Hegel develops the content of the Estates' essential political activity, viz., the legislature, less than he does their position, or political rank.</p> <p>It should be further noted that, while the Estates, according to Hegel, stand between the government in general on the one hand and the nation broken up into particulars (people and associations) on the other, the significance of their position as developed above is that, in common with the organised executive, they are a middle term.</p> <p>Regarding the first position, the Estates represent the nation over against the executive, but the nation en miniature. This is their oppositional position.</p> <p>Regarding the second, they represent the executive over against the nation, but the amplified executive. This is their conservative position. They are themselves a part of the executive over against the people, but in such a way that they simultaneously have the significance of representing the people over against the executive.</p> <p>Above, Hegel called the legislature a 'totality' (§ 300). In fact, however, the Estates are this totality, the state within the state; but it is precisely in them that it becomes apparent that the state is not a totality but a duality. The Estates represent the state in a society that is no state. The state is a mere representation [eine blosse Vorstellung].</p> <p>In the Remark Hegel says:</p> <p>It is one of the most important discoveries of logic that a specific moment, which, by standing in an opposition, has the position of ail extreme, ceases to be such and is a moment in an organic whole by being at the same time a mean.</p> <p>(Thus the Estates are at one and the same time (1) the extreme of the nation over against the executive, but (2) the mean between nation and executive; or, in other words, the opposition within the nation itself The opposition between the executive and the nation is mediated through the opposition between the Estates and the nation. From the point of view of the executive the Estates have the position of the nation, but from the point of view of the nation they have the position of the executive. The nation in its occurrence as image, fantasy, illusion, representation - i.e., the imagined nation, or the Estates, which are immediately situated as a particular power in dissociation from the actual nation - abolishes [hebt auf] the actual opposition between the nation and the executive. Here the nation is already dressed out, exactly as required in this particular organism, so as to have no determinate character.)</p> <p>The Remark continues:</p> <p>In connection with our present topic it is all the more important to emphasise this aspect of the matter because of the popular, but most dangerous, prejudice which regards the Estates principally from the point of view of their opposition to the executive, as if that were their essential attitude. If the Estates become an organ in the whole by being taken up into the state, they evince themselves solely through their mediating function. In this way their opposition to the executive is reduced to a show. There may indeed be an appearance of opposition between them, but if they were opposed, not merely superficially, but actually and in substance, then the state would be in the throes of destruction. That the clash is not of this kind is evident in the nature of the thing, because the Estates have to deal, not with the essential elements in the organism of the state, but only with rather specialised and trifling matters, while the passion which even these arouse spends itself in party cravings in connection with purely subjective interests such as appointments to higher offices of state.</p> <p>In the Addition it says: 'The constitution is essentially a system of mediation.'</p> <p>§ 303. The universal class, or, more precisely, the class of civil servants, must, purely in virtue of its character as universal, have the universal as the end of its essential activity. In the Estates, as an element in the legislative power, the unofficial class acquires its political significance and efficacy; it appears, therefore, in the Estates neither as a mere indiscriminate multitude nor as an aggregate dispersed into its atoms, but as what it already is, namely a class subdivided into two, one subclass [the agricultural class] being based on a tic of substance between its members, and the other [the business class] on particular needs and the work whereby these are met . . . It is only in this way that there is a genuine link between the particular which is effective in the state and the universal.</p> <p>Here we have the solution of the riddle. 'In the Estates, as an element in the legislative power, the unofficial class acquires its political significance.' acquires It is understood that the unofficial, or private class [der Privatstand] this significance in accordance with what it is, with its articulation within civil society; (Hegel has already designated the universal class as the class dedicated to the executive; the universal class, therefore, is represented in the legislature by the executive.)</p> <p>The Estates are the political significance of the unofficial class, i.e., of the unpolitical class, which is a contradictio in adjecto; or to put it another way, in class as described by Hegel the unofficial class (or, more correctly, unofficial class difference) has a political significance. The unofficial class belongs to the essence, to the very political reality [zur Politik] of this state, which thus gives it also a political significance, that is, one that differs from its actual significance.</p> <p>In the Remark it says:</p> <p>This runs counter to another prevalent idea, the idea that since it is in the legislature that the unofficial class rises to the level of participating in matters of state, it must appear there in the form of individuals, whether individuals are to choose representatives for this purpose, or whether every single individual is to have a vote in the legislature himself. This atomistic and abstract point of view vanishes at the stage of the family, as well as that of civil society where the individual is in evidence only as a member of a general group. The state, however, is essentially an organisation each of whose members is in itself a group of this kind, and hence no one of its moments should appear as an unorganised aggregate. The Many, as units - a congenial interpretation of 'people', are of course something connected, but they are connected only as an aggregate, a formless mass whose commotion and activity could therefore only be elementary, irrational, barbarous, and frightful.</p> <p>The circles of association in civil society are already communities. To picture these communities as once more breaking up into a mere conglomeration of individuals as soon as they enter the field of politics, i.e., the field of the highest concrete universality, is eo ipso to hold civil and political life apart from one another and as it were to hang the latter in the air, because its basis could then only be the abstract individuality of caprice and opinion, and hence it would be grounded on chance and not on what is absolutely stable and justified.</p> <p>So-called 'theories' of this kind involve the idea that the classes [Stände] of civil society and the Estates [Stände], which are the 'classes' given a political significance, stand wide apart from each other. But the German language, by calling them both Stände has still maintained the unity which in any case they actually possessed in former times.</p> <p>'The universal class, or, more precisely, the class of civil servants. Hegel proceeds from the hypothesis that the universal class is the class of civil servants. For him, universal intelligence is attached permanently to a class.</p> <p>'In the Estates as an element etc.' Here, the political significance and efficacy of the unofficial class is precisely its particular significance and efficacy. The unofficial class is not changed into a political class, but appears as the unofficial class in its political significance and efficacy. It does not have political significance and efficacy simply; its political efficacy and significance are those of the unofficial class as unofficial or private. Accordingly, the unofficial class can appear in the political sphere only in keeping with the class difference found in civil society. The class difference within civil society becomes a political difference.</p> <p>Even the German language, says Hegel, expresses the identity of the classes of civil society with the classes given a political significance; it expresses a unity which in any case they actually possessed in former times - a unity, one should thus conclude, which no longer exists.</p> <p>Hegel finds that, in this way there is a genuine link between the particular which is effective in the state and the universal. In this way the separation of civil and political life is to be abolished and their identity established.</p> <p>Hegel finds support in the following: 'The circles of association (family and civil society) are already communities.' How can one want these to break up into a mere conglomeration of individuals as soon as they enter the field of politics, i.e., the field of the highest concrete universality?</p> <p>It is important to follow this development very carefully.</p> <p>The peak of Hegelian identity, as Hegel himself admits, was the Middle Ages. There, the classes of civil society in general and the Estates, or classes given political significance, were identical. The spirit of the Middle Ages can be expressed thus: the classes of civil society and the political classes were identical because civil society was political society, because the organic principle of civil society was the principle of the state.</p> <p>But Hegel proceeds from the separation of civil society and the political state as two actually different spheres, firmly opposed to one another. And indeed this separation does actually exist in the modern state. The identity of the civil and political classes in the Middle Ages was the expression of the identity of civil and political society. This identity has disappeared; and Hegel presupposes it as having disappeared. The identity of the civil and political classes, if it expressed the truth, could be now only an expression of the separation of civil and political society! Or rather, only the separation of the civil and political classes expresses the true relationship of modern civil and political society.</p> <p>Secondly: the political classes Hegel deals with here have a wholly different meaning than those political classes of the Middle Ages, which are said to be identical with the classes of civil society.</p> <p>The whole existence of the medieval classes was political; their existence was the existence of the state. Their legislative activity, their grant of taxes for the realm was merely a particular issue of their universal political significance and efficacy. Their class was their state. The relationship to the realm was merely one of transaction between these various states and the nationality, because the political state in distinction from civil society was nothing but the representation of nationality. Nationality was the point d'honneur, the kat exhin political sense of these various Corporations etc., and taxes etc., pertained only to them. That was the relationship of the legislative classes to the realm. The classes were related in a similar way within the particular principalities. There, the principality, the sovereignty was a particular class which enjoyed certain privileges but was equally inconvenienced by the privileges of the other classes. (With the Greeks, civil society was a slave to political society.) The universal legislative efficacy of the classes of civil society was in no way the acquisition of political significance and efficacy by the unofficial, or private class, but was rather a simple issue of its actual and universal political significance and efficacy. The appearance of the private class as legislative power was simply a complement of its sovereign and governing (executive) power; or rather it was its appropriation of wholly public affairs as a private affair, its acquisition, qua private class, of sovereignty. In the Middle Ages, the classes of civil society were as such simultaneously legislative because they were not private classes, or because private classes were political classes. The medieval classes did not, as political Estates, acquire a new character. They did not become political classes because they participated in legislation; rather they participated in legislation because they were political classes. But what does that have in common with Hegel's unofficial class which, as a legislative element, acquires political bravura, an ecstatic condition, a remarkable, stunning, extraordinary political significance and efficacy?</p> <p>All the contradictions of the Hegelian presentation are found together in this development.</p> <p>1. He has presupposed the separation of civil society and the political state (which is a modern situation), and developed it as a necessary moment of the Idea, as an absolute truth of Reason. He has presented the political state in its modern form of the separation of the various powers. For its body he has given the actual acting state the bureaucracy, which he ordains to be the knowing spirit over and above the materialism of civil society. He has opposed the state, as the actual universal, to the particular interest and need of civil society. in short, he presents everywhere the conflict between civil society and the state.</p> <p>2. He opposes civil society as unofficial, or private class to the political state.</p> <p>3. He calls the Estates, as element of the legislative power, the pure political formalism of civil society. He calls them a relationship of civil society to the state which is a reflection of the former on the latter, a reflection which does not alter the essence of the state. A relationship of reflection is also the highest identity between essentially different things.</p> <p>On the other hand:</p> <p>1. Hegel wants civil society, in its self-establishment as legislative clement, to appear neither as a mere indiscriminate multitude nor as an aggregate dispersed into its atoms. He wants no separation of civil and political life.</p> <p>2. He forgets that he is dealing with a relationship of reflection, and makes the civil classes as such political classes; but again only with reference to the legislative power, so that their efficacy itself is proof of the separation.</p> <p>He makes the Estates the expression of the separation [of civil and political life]; but at the same time they are supposed to be the representative of an identity - an identity which does not exist. Hegel is aware of the separation of civil society and the political state, but he wants the unity of the state expressed within the state; and this is to be achieved by having the classes of civil society, while remaining such, form the Estates as an element of legislative society. (cf. xiv, x)'</p> <p>Part 5: The Estates §§ 304 - 307</p> <p> § 304. The Estates, as an element in political life, still retain in their own function the class distinctions already present in the lower spheres of civil life. The position of the classes is abstract to begin with, i.e., in contrast with the whole principle of monarchy or the crown, their position is that of an extreme — empirical universality. This extreme opposition implies the possibility, though no more, of harmonisation, and the equally likely possibility of set hostility. This abstract position changes into a rational relation (into a syllogism, see Remark to § 302) only if the middle term between the opposites comes into existence. From the point of view of the crown, the executive already has this character (see § 300). So, from the point of view of the classes, one moment in them must be adapted to the task of existing as in essence the moment of mediation.</p> <p>§ 305. The principle of one of the classes of civil society is in itself capable of adaptation to this political position. The class in question is the one whose ethical life is natural, whose basis is family life, and, so far as its livelihood is concerned, the possession of land. Its particular members attain their position by birth, just as the monarch does, and, in common with him, they possess a will which rests on itself al6ne.</p> <p>§ 306. This class is more particularly fitted for political position and significance in that its capital is independent alike of the state's capital, the uncertainty of business, the quest for profit, and any sort of fluctuation in possessions. It is likewise independent of favour, whether from the executive or the mob. It is even fortified against its own wilfulness, because those members of this class who are called to political life are not entitled, as other citizens are, either to dispose of their entire property at will, or to the assurance that it will pass to their children, whom they love equally, in similarly equal divisions. Hence their wealth becomes inalienable, entailed, and burdened by primogeniture.</p> <p>Addition: This class has a volition of a more independent character. On the whole, the class of landed-property owners is divided into an educated section and a section of farmers. But over against both of these sorts of people there stands the business class, which is dependent on needs and concentrated on their satisfaction, and the civil servant class, which is essentially dependent on the state. The security and stability of the agricultural class may be still further increased by the institution of primogeniture, though this institution is desirable only from the point of view of politics, since it entails a sacrifice for the political end of giving the eldest son a life of independence. Primogeniture is grounded on the fact that the state should be able to reckon not on the bare possibility of political inclinations, but on something necessary. Now an inclination for politics is of course not bound up with wealth, but there is a relatively necessary connection between the two, because a man with independent means is not hemmed in by external circumstances and so there is nothing to prevent him from entering politics and working for the state. Where Political institutions are lacking, however, the foundation and encouragement of primogeniture is nothing but a chain on the freedom of private rights, and either political meaning must be given to it, or else it will in due course disappear.</p> <p>§ 307. The right of this section of the agriculture class is thus based in a way on the natural principle of the family. But this principle is at the same time reversed owing to hard sacrifices made for political ends, and thereby the activity of this class is essentially directed to those ends. As a consequence of this, this class is summoned and entitled to its political vocation by birth without the hazards of election. It therefore has the fixed substantive position between the subjective wilfulness or contingency of both extremes; and while it mirrors in itself. . . 1 the moment of the monarchical power, it also shares in other respects the needs and rights of the other extreme [i.e., civil society], and hence it becomes a support at once of the throne and society.</p> <p>Hegel has accomplished the masterpiece: he has developed peerage by birthright, wealth by inheritance, etc. etc., this support of the throne and society, on top of the absolute Idea.</p> <p>Hegel's keenest insight lies in his sensing the separation of civil and political society to be a contradiction. But his error is that he contents himself with the appearance of its dissolution, and passes it off as the real thing; while the 'so-called theories' which he despises demand the separation of the civil and political classes, and rightly, for they express a consequence of modern society, in that here the political Estates are precisely nothing but the factual expression of the actual relationship of state and civil society — their separation.</p> <p>Hegel has failed to identify the issue in question here. It is the issue of representative versus Estate constitution. The representative constitution is a great advance, for it is the open, genuine, consistent expression of the condition of the modern state. It is the unconcealed contradiction.</p> <p>Before we take up this matter itself, let's take another look at this Hegelian presentation.</p> <p>In the Estates as an element in the legislative power, the unofficial class acquires its political significance.</p> <p>Earlier (in the Remark to § 301) it was said:</p> <p>Hence the specific function which the concept assigns to the Estates is to be sought in the fact that in them ... the private judgment and private will of the sphere called 'civil society' in this book come into existence integrally related to the state.</p> <p>The meaning of these two, taken in combination, is as follows: Civil society is the unofficial class, or, the unofficial class is the immediate, essential, concrete class of civil society. Only within the Estates as an element of the legislative power does it acquire political significance and efficacy. This is a new endowment, a particular function, for precisely its character as unofficial class expresses its opposition to political significance and efficacy, the privation of political character, and the fact that civil society actually lacks political significance and efficacy. The unofficial class is the class of civil society, or civil society is the unofficial class. Thus, in consequence, Hegel also excludes the universal class from the Estates as an element of the legislative power:</p> <p>The universal class, or, more precisely, the class of civil servants, must purely in virtue of its character as universal, have the universal as the end of its essential activity.</p> <p>In virtue of its character, civil society, or the unofficial class, does not have the universal as the end of its essential activity. Its essential activity is not a determination of the universal; it has no universal character. The unofficial class is the class of civil society as opposed to the [political] class.' The class of civil society is not a political class.</p> <p>In declaring civil society to be the unofficial class, Hegel has declared the class differences of civil society to be non-political differences and civil and political life to be heterogeneous in character, even antitheses. How then does he proceed?</p> <p>[The unofficial class] appears, therefore, in the Estates neither as a mere indiscriminate multitude nor as an aggregate dispersed into its atoms, but as what it already is, namely a class subdivided into two, one sub-class [the agricultural class] being based on a tie of substance between its members, and the other [the business class] on particular needs and the work whereby these are met (see § 201 ff.). It is only in this way that there is a genuine link between the particular which is effective in the state and the universal.</p> <p>To be sure, civil society (the unofficial class), in its legislative activity in the Estates, cannot appear as a mere indiscriminate multitude because the mere indiscriminate multitude exists only in imagination or fantasy, but not in actuality. What actually exists is only accidental multitudes of various sizes (cities, villages, etc.). These multitudes, or this aggregate not only appears but everywhere really is an aggregate dispersed into its atoms; and when it appears in its political-class activity it must appear as this atomistic thing. The unofficial class, civil society, cannot appear here as what it already is. For what is it already? Unofficial class, i.e., opposition to and separation from the state. In order to achieve political significance and efficacy it must rather renounce itself as what it already is, as unofficial class. Only through this does it acquire its political significance and efficacy. This political act is a complete transubstantiation. In this political act civil society must completely renounce itself as such, as unofficial class, and assert a part of its essence which not only has nothing in common with the actual civil existence of its essence, but directly opposes it.</p> <p>What the universal law is appears here in the individual. Civil society and the state are separated. Consequently the citizen of the state and the member of civil society are also separated. The individual must thus undertake an essential schism within himself As actual citizen he finds himself in a two-fold organisation: [a] the bureaucratic, which is an external formal determination of the otherworldly state, of the executive power, which does not touch him and his independent actuality; [b] the social, the organisation of civil society, within which he stands outside the state as a private man, for civil society does not touch upon the political state as such. The former [the bureaucratic] is an organisation of the state to which he continually contributes the material. The latter [the social] is a civil organisation whose material is not the state. In the former the state relates to him as formal opposition; in the latter he himself relates to the state as material opposition. Thus, in order to behave as actual citizen of the state, to acquire political significance and efficacy, he must abandon his civil actuality, abstract from it, and retire from this entire organisation into his individuality. He must do this because the only existence that he finds for his state-citizenship is his pure, bare individuality, for the existence of the state as executive is complete without him, and his existence in civil society is complete without the state. Only in opposition to these exclusively existing communities, only as an individual, can he be a citizen of the state. His existence as citizen is an existence lying outside the realm of his communal existences, and is hence purely individual. The legislature as a power is precisely the organisation, the communal embodiment, which his political existence is supposed to receive. Prior to the legislature, civil society, or the unofficial class, does not exist as political organisation. In order that it come to existence as such, its actual organisation, actual civil life, must be established as non-existing, for the Estates as an element of the legislative power have precisely the character of rendering the unofficial class, civil society, non-existent. The separation of civil society and the political state appears necessarily to be a separation of the political citizen, the citizen of the state, from civil society, i.e., from his own actual, empirical reality; for as a state-idealist he is a being who is completely other, distinct, different from and opposed to his own actuality. Here civil society effects within itself the relationship of the state and civil society, a relationship which already exists on the other side [i.e., within the state] as the bureaucracy. in the Estates the universal becomes actually, explicitly [für sich] what it is implicitly [an sich], namely, opposition to the particular. The citizen must renounce his class, civil society, the unofficial class, in order to achieve political significance and efficacy; for it is precisely this class which stands between the individual and the political state.</p> <p>If Hegel already contrasts the whole of civil society as unofficial class to the political state, then it is self-evident that the distinctions within the unofficial class, i.e., the various civil classes, have only an unofficial significance with regard to the state; in other words, they have no political significance. For the various civil classes are simply the actualisation, the existence, of the principle, i.e., of the unofficial class as of the principle of civil society. If, however, the principle must be abandoned, then it is self-evident that still more the schisms within this principle are non-existent for the political state.</p> <p>'It is only in this way', says Hegel in concluding the paragraph, 'that there is a genuine link between the particular which is effective in the state and the universal.' But here Hegel confuses the state as the whole of a people's existence with the political state. That particular is not the particular in, but rather outside the state, namely, the political state. It is not only not the particular which is effective in the state, but also the ineffectiveness [Unwirklichkeit] of the state. What Hegel wants to establish is that the classes of civil society are political classes; and in order to prove this he asserts that the classes of civil society are the particularity of the political state, that is to say, that civil society is political society. The expression, 'The particular in the state', can here only mean the particularity of the state. A bad conscience causes Hegel to choose the vague expression. Not only has he himself developed just the opposite, but he even ratifies it in this paragraph by characterising civil society as the 'unofficial class'. His statement that the particular is 'linked' to the universal is very cautious. The most dissimilar things can be linked. But here we are not dealing with a gradual transition but with a transubstantiation, and it is useless to ignore deliberately this cleft which has been jumped over and yet manifested by the very jump.</p> <p>In the Remark Hegel says: 'This runs counter to another prevalent idea' etc. We have just shown how this prevalent idea is consequently and inevitably a necessary idea of the people's present development, and how Hegel's idea, despite its also being very prevalent in certain circles, is nevertheless untrue.</p> <p>Returning to this prevalent idea Hegel says: 'This atomistic and abstract point of view vanishes at the stage of the family' etc. etc. 'The state, however, is' etc. This point of view is undeniably abstract, but it is the abstraction of the political state as Hegel himself develops it. It is atomistic too, but it is the atomism of society itself. The point of view cannot be concrete when the object of the point of view is abstract. The atomism into which civil society is driven by its political act results necessarily from the fact that the commonwealth [das Gemeinwesen], the communal being [das kommunistische Wesen], within which the individual exists, is [reduced to] civil society separated from the state, or in other words, that the political state is an abstraction of civil society.'</p> <p>This atomistic point of view, although it already vanishes in the family, and perhaps (??) also in civil society, recurs in the political state precisely because the political state is an abstraction of the family and civil society. But the reverse is also true. By expressing the strangeness [das Befremdliche] of this occurrence Hegel has not eliminated the estrangement [die Entfremdung].</p> <p>The circles of association in civil society, Hegel continues, are already communities. To picture these communities as once more breaking up into a mere conglomeration of individuals as soon as they enter the field of politics, i.e., the field of the highest concrete universality, is eo ipso to hold civil and political life apart from one another and as it were to hang the latter in the air, because its basis could then only be the abstract individuality of caprice and opinion, and hence it would be grounded on chance and not on what is absolutely stable and justified.</p> <p>This picturing [of these communities as breaking up] does not hold civil and political life apart; it is simply the picturing of an actually existing separation.</p> <p>Nor does this picturing hang political life in the air; rather, political life is the life in the air, the ethereal region of civil society.</p> <p>Now we turn to the representative and the Estate systems.</p> <p>It is a development of history that has transformed the political classes into social classes such that, just as the Christians are equal in heaven yet unequal on earth, so the individual members of a people are equal in the heaven of their political world yet unequal in the earthly existence of society. The real transformation of the political classes into civil classes took place under the absolute monarchy. The bureaucracy asserted the idea of unity over against the various states within the state. Nevertheless, even alongside the bureaucracy of the absolute executive, the social difference of the classes remained a political difference, political within and alongside the bureaucracy of the absolute executive. Only the French Revolution completed the transformation of the political classes into social classes, in other words, made the class distinctions of civil society into merely social distinctions, pertaining to private life but meaningless in political life. With that, the separation of political life and civil society was completed.</p> <p>At the same time the classes of civil society were likewise transformed: civil society underwent a change by reason of its separation from political society. Class in the medieval sense remained only within the bureaucracy itself, where civil and political positions are immediately identical. Over against this stands civil society as unofficial class. Here class distinction is no longer one of need and of labor as an independent body. The sole general, superficial and formal distinction which remains is that of town and country. But within civil society itself the distinctions take shape in changeable, unfixed spheres whose principle is arbitrariness. Money and education are the prevalent criteria. Yet it's not here, but in the critique of Hegel's treatment of civil society that this should be developed. Enough said. Class in civil society has neither need — and therefore a natural impulse — nor politics for its principle. It is a division of the masses whose development is unstable and whose very structure is arbitrary and in no sense an organisation.</p> <p>The sole characteristic thing is that the lack of property, and the class in need of immediate labor, of concrete labor, forms less a class of civil society than the basis upon which the spheres of civil society rest and move. The sole class in which political and civil positions coincide is that of the members of the executive power. The present social class already manifests a distinction from the former class of civil society by the fact that it does not, as was formerly the case, regard the individual as a communal in individual, as a communal being [ein Gemeinwesen]; rather, it is partly chance, partly labor, etc., of the individual which determines whether he remains in his class or not, a class which is, further, only an external determination of this individual; for he neither inheres in his work nor does the class relate to him as an objective communal being organised according to firm laws and related firmly to him. Moreover, he stands in no actual relation to his substantial activity, to his actual class. The medical man, for instance, forms no particular class in civil society. one businessman belongs to a class different than that of another businessman, i.e., he belongs to another social position. Just as civil society is separated from political society, so within itself civil society is separated into class and social position, even though some relations obtain between the two. The principle of the civil class, or of civil society, is enjoyment and the capacity to enjoy. In his political role the member of civil society rids himself of his class, of his actual private position; by this alone does he acquire significance as man. in other words, his character as a member of the state, as a social being, appears to be his human character. For all of his other characteristics in civil society appear to be unessential to the man, the individual; that is, they appear to be external characteristics which are indeed necessary to his existence within the whole, i.e., as being a bond with the whole, but a bond that he can just as well throw off. (Present civil society is the accomplished principle of individualism: individual existence is the final end, while activity, labor, content, etc., are merely means.)</p> <p>The Estate-constitution, when not a tradition of the Middle Ages, is the attempt, partly within the political sphere itself, to thrust man back into the limitation of his private sphere, to make his particularity his substantial consciousness and, by means of the political character of class difference, also to make him once more into a social being.</p> <p>The actual man is the private man of the present-day political constitution.</p> <p>In general, the significance of the estate is that it makes difference, separation, subsistence, things pertaining to the individual as such.' His manner of life, activity, etc. is his privilege, and instead of making him a functional member of society, it makes him an exception from society. The fact that this difference is not only individual but also established as community, estate, corporation, not only fails to abolish the exclusiveness of its nature, but is rather its expression. Instead of the particular function being a function of society, the particular function is made into a society for itself.</p> <p>Not only is the estate based on the separation of society as the governing principle, but it separates man from his universal nature; it makes him an animal whose being coincides immediately with its determinate character. The Middle Ages constitutes the animal history of mankind, its zoology.</p> <p>Modern times, civilisation, commits the opposite mistake. It separates man s objective essence from him, taking it to be merely external and material. Man's content is not taken to be his true actuality.</p> <p>Anything further regarding this is to be developed in the section on 'Civil Society'.</p> <p>Now we come to</p> <p>§ 304. The Estates, as an element in political life, still retain in their own significance, the class distinctions already present in the lower spheres of civil life.</p> <p>We have already shown that the class distinctions already present in the lower spheres of life have no significance for the political spheres, or if so, then only the significance of private, hence non-political, distinctions. But according to Hegel here they do not even have their already present significance (their significance in civil society). Rather, the Estates as an element in political life affirms its essence by embodying these distinctions within itself; and, thus immersed in political life, they receive a significance of their 'own' which belongs not to them but to this element.</p> <p>As long as the organisation of civil society remained political, and the political state and civil society were one, this separation, this duplication of the estates' significance was not present. The estates did not signify one thing in the civil world and something other in the political world. They acquired no [additional] significance in the political world, but signified only themselves. The duality of civil society and the political state, which the Estate-constitution purports to resolve through a reminiscence, appears within that constitution itself, in that class difference (the differentiation within civil society) acquires in the political sphere a significance different than in the civil sphere. There is apparent identity here: the same subject, but in an essentially different determination, and thus in fact a double subject. And this illusory identity (surely an illusory identity because, in fact, the actual subject, man, remains constantly himself, does not lose his identity in the various determinations of his being; but here man is not the subject, rather he is identified with a predicate — the class — and at the same time it is asserted that he exists in this definite determination and in another determination, that he is, as this definite, exempted and restricted thing, something other than this restricted thing) is artificially maintained through that reflection [mentioned earlier], by at one time having civil class distinction as such assume a character which should accrue to it only in the political sphere, and at another time reversing things and having the class distinction in the political sphere acquire a character which issues not from the political sphere but from the subject of the civil sphere. In order to present the one limited subject, the definite class (the class distinction), as the essential subject of both predicates, or in order to prove the identity of the two predicates, both are mystified and developed in an illusory and vague dimorphism [Doppelgestalt].</p> <p>Here the same subject is taken in different meanings, but the meaning is not a self-determination [of the subject]; rather, it is an allegorical determination foisted on the subject. One could use the same meaning for a different concrete subject, or another meaning for the same subject. The significance that civil class distinction acquires in the political sphere is not its own, but proceeds from the political sphere; and even here it could have a different significance, as was historically the case. The reverse is also true. This is the uncritical, the mystical way of interpreting an old world-view in terms of a new one, through which it becomes nothing but an unhappy hybrid in which the form betrays the meaning and the meaning the form, and neither does the form achieve significance, thus becoming actual form, nor the significance become form, thus becoming actual significance. This uncritical spirit, this mysticism, is the enigma of the modern constitution (kat exohin the Estate-constitution) as well as the mystery of Hegelian philosophy, especially the Philosophy of Right and the Philosophy of Religion.</p> <p>The best way to rid oneself of this illusion is to take the significance as what it is, i.e., as the actual determination, then as such make it the subject, and consider whether its ostensibly proper subject is its actual predicate, i.e., whether this ostensibly proper subject expresses its [the actual determination's] essence and true actualisation.</p> <p>The position of the classes (the Estates as an element in political life), is abstract to begin with, i.e., in contrast with the whole principle of monarchy or the crown, their position is that of an extreme — empirical universality. This extreme opposition implies the possibility, though no more, of harmonisation, and the equally likely possibility of set hostility. This abstract position changes into a rational relation (into a syllogism, see Remark to § 302) only if the middle term between the opposites comes into existence.</p> <p>We have already seen that the Estates, in common with the executive power, form the middle term between the principle of monarchy and the people, between the will of the state existing as one and as many empirical Wills, and between empirical singularity and empirical universality. Just as he had to define the will of civil society as empirical universality, so Hegel had to define the sovereign will as empirical singularity; but he does not articulate the antithesis in all of its sharpness.</p> <p>Hegel continues:</p> <p>From the point of view of the crown, the executive already has this character (see § 300). So, from the point of view of the classes, one moment in them must be adapted to the task of existing as in essence the moment of mediation.</p> <p>The true antitheses, however, are the sovereign and civil society. And as we have already seen, the Estates have the same significance from the people's point of view as the executive has from the point of view of the sovereign. Just as the executive emanates in an elaborate circular system, so the people condenses into a miniature edition; for the constitutional monarchy can get along well only with the people en miniature. The Estates, from the point of view of civil society, are the very same abstraction of the political state as is the executive from the sovereign's point of view. Thus it appears that the mediation has been fully achieved. Both extremes have left their obstinacy behind, each has imparted the spirit of its particular essence into a fusion with that of the other; and the legislature, whose elements are the executive as well as the Estates, appears not to be that which must first allow this mediation to come to existence, but to be itself the already existing mediation. Also, Hegel has already [§ 302] declared the Estates in common with the executive to be the middle term between the people and the sovereign (the same way the Estates are the middle term between civil society and the executive, etc.). Thus the rational relation, the syllogism, appears to be complete. The legislature, the middle term, is a mixtum compositum of both extremes: the sovereign-principle and civil society, empirical singularity and empirical universality, subject and predicate. In general, Hegel conceives of the syllogism as middle term, to be a mixtum compositum. We can say that in his development of the rational syllogism all of the transcendence and mystical dualism of his system becomes apparent. The middle term is the wooden sword, the concealed opposition between universality and singularity.</p> <p>To begin with, we notice in regard to this whole development that the mediation Hegel wants to establish here is not derived from the essence of the legislature, from its own character, but rather with regard to an existence lying outside its essential character. It is a construction of reference. The legislature is chiefly developed with regard only to a third [party]. Hence, it is primarily the construction of its formal existence which receives all the attention. The legislature is constructed very diplomatically. This results from the false, illusory kat exohin political position given to the legislature in the modern state (whose interpreter is Hegel himself). What follows immediately is that this is no true state, because in it the determinate functions of the state, one of which is the legislature, must not be regarded in and for themselves, not theoretically, but rather practically; they must not be regarded as independent powers, but as powers bound up with an opposite, and this in accordance with the rules of convention rather than by the nature of things.</p> <p>Thus the Estates, in common with the executive, should actually be the middle term between the will of empirical singularity, i.e., the sovereign, and the will of empirical universality, i.e., civil society. But in fact their position is really 'abstract to begin with, i.e., in contrast with the whole principle of monarchy or the crown, their position is that of an extreme empirical universality. This extreme opposition implies the possibility, though no more, of harmonisation, and the equally likely possibility of set hostility. In other words their position, as Hegel quite rightly remarks, is an abstract position.</p> <p>It appears at first that neither the extreme of empirical universality nor the principle of monarchy or the crown, i.e., the extreme of empirical singularity, are opposed to one another. For from the point of view of civil society the Estates are delegated just as the executive is from the point of view of the sovereign. Just as the principle of the crown ceases, in the delegated executive power, to be the extreme of empirical singularity, surrendering its self-determined will and lowering itself to the finitude of knowledge, responsibility, and thought, so civil society appears in the Estates to be no longer an empirical universality, but a very definite whole which has political and administrative sense and temper, and no less a sense for the interests of individuals and particular groups (§ 302). Civil society, in its miniature edition as the Estates, has ceased to be empirical universality. Rather, it has been reduced to a delegated committee of very definite number. If the sovereign assumes empirical universality in the executive power, then civil society assumes empirical singularity or particularity in the Estates. Both have become a particular.</p> <p>The only opposition which remains possible appears to be that between the two emanations, between the executive- and the Estate-elements within the legislature. It appears, therefore, to be an opposition within the legislature itself. And these elements which mediate 'in common' seem quite prone to get into one another's hair. In the executive element of the legislature the inaccessible empirical singularity of the sovereign has come down to earth in a number of limited, tangible, responsible personalities; and in the Estates, civil society has exalted itself into a number of political men. Both sides have lost their inaccessibility. The crown — the inaccessible, exclusive, empirical One — has lost its obstinacy, while civil society — the inaccessible, vague, empirical All — has lost its fluidity. In the Estates on the one hand, and the executive element of the legislature on the other, which together would mediate between civil society and the sovereign, the opposition thus appears to have become, first of all, a refereed opposition, but also an irreconcilable contradiction.</p> <p>As for this mediation, it is therefore, as Hegel rightly argues, all the more necessary that the middle term between the opposites comes into existence; for it is itself much more the existence of the contradiction than of the mediation.</p> <p>That this mediation will be effected by the Estates seems to be maintained by Hegel without any foundation. He says:</p> <p>From the point of view of the crown, the executive already has this character (see § 300). So, from the point of view of the classes, one moment in them must be adapted to the task of existing as in essence the moment of mediation.</p> <p>But we have already seen that Hegel arbitrarily and inconsistently posits the sovereign and the Estates as opposed extremes. As the executive has this character from the point of view of the crown, so the Estates have it from the point of view of civil society. Not only do [the Estates] stand, in common with the executive, between the sovereign and civil society, but also between the executive in general and the people (§ 302). They do more on behalf of civil society than the executive does on behalf of the crown, which is itself in opposition to the people. Thus they have accomplished their full measure of mediation. Why make these asses bear still more? Why should they always be made the donkey-bridge, even between themselves and their own adversaries? Why must they always perform the self-sacrifice? Should they cut off one of their hands when both are needed to withstand their adversary, the executive element of the legislature?</p> <p>In addition, Hegel first has the Estates arise from the Corporations, class distinctions, etc., lest they be a mere empirical universality; and now he reverses the process, and makes them mere empirical universality in order to have class distinction arise from them! just as the sovereign is mediated with civil society through the executive, so society is mediated with the executive through the Estates — the executive thus acting as society's Christ, and the Estates as its priests.</p> <p>Now it appears all the more that the role of the extremes — the crown (empirical singularity) and civil society (empirical universality) - must be that of mediating as the middle term between the opposites; all the more because 'it is one of the most important discoveries of logic that a specific moment which, by standing in an opposition, has the position of an extreme, ceases to be such and is a moment in an organic whole by being at the same time the mean' (Remark to § 302). Civil society appears to be unable to play this role, for civil society as itself, as an extreme, occupies no seat in the legislature. The other extreme, the sovereign principle, exists as an extreme within the legislature, and thus apparently must be the mediator between the Estate- and the executive-elements. And it appears to have all the qualifications; for, on the one hand, the whole of the state, and therefore also civil society, is represented within it, and, more specifically, it has empirical singularity of will in common with the Estates, since empirical universality is actual only as empirical singularity. Furthermore, the sovereign principle does not merely op pose civil society as a kind of formula, as state-consciousness, the way the executive does. It is itself the state; it has the material, natural moment in common with civil society. On the other hand, it is the head and the representative of the executive. (Hegel, who inverts everything, makes the executive the representative, the emanation, of the sovereign. When he considers the idea whose existence the sovereign is supposed to be, Hegel has in mind not the actual idea of the executive, the executive as idea, but rather the subject of the Absolute Idea which exists corporeally in the sovereign; hence the executive becomes a mystical continuation of the soul existing in his body - the sovereign body.)</p> <p>The sovereign, then, had to be the middle term in the legislature between the executive and the Estates; but, of course, the executive is the middle term between him and the Estates, and the Estates between him and civil society. How is he to mediate between what he himself needs as a mean lest his own existence become a one-sided extreme? Now the complete absurdity of these extremes, which interchangeably play now the part of the extreme and now the part of the mean, becomes apparent. They are like Janus with two-faced heads, which now show themselves from the front and now from the back, with a diverse character at either side. What was first intended to be the mean between two extremes now itself occurs as an extreme; and the other of the two extremes, which had just been mediated by it, now intervenes as an extreme' (because of its distinction from the other extreme) between its extreme and its mean. This is a kind of mutual reconciliation society. It is as if a man stepped between two opponents, only to have one of them immediately step between the mediator and the other opponent. It is like the story of the man and wife who quarrelled and the doctor who wished to mediate between them, whereupon the wife soon had to step between the doctor and her husband, and then the husband between his wife and the doctor. It is like the lion in A Midsummer Night's Dream who exclaims: 'I am the lion, and I am not the lion, but Snug.' So here each extreme is sometimes the lion of opposition and sometimes the Snug of mediation. When the one extreme cries: 'Now I am the mean', then the other two may not touch it, but rather only swing at the one that was just the extreme. As one can see, this is a society pugnacious at heart but too afraid of bruises to ever really fight. The two who want to fight arrange it so that the third who steps between them will get the beating, but immediately one of the two appears as the third, and because of all this caution they never arrive at a decision. We find this system of mediation in effect also where the very man who wishes to beat an opponent has at the same time to protect him from a beating at the hands of other opponents, and because of this double pursuit never manages to execute his own business. It is remarkable that Hegel, who reduces this absurdity of mediation to its abstract logical, and hence pure and irreducible, expression, calls it at the same time the speculative mystery of logic, the rational relationship, the rational syllogism. Actual extremes cannot be mediated with each other precisely because they are actual extremes. But neither are they in need of mediation, because they are opposed in essence. They have nothing in common with one another; they neither need nor complement one another. The one does not carry in its womb the yearning, the need, the anticipation of the other. (When Hegel treats universality and singularity, the abstract moments of the syllogism, as actual opposites, this is precisely the fundamental dualism of his logic. Anything further regarding this belongs in the critique of Hegelian logic.)</p> <p>This appears to be in opposition to the principle: Les extrêmes se touchent. The North and South Poles attract each other; the female and male sexes also attract each other, and only through the union of their extreme differences does man result.</p> <p>On the other hand, each extreme is its other extreme. Abstract spiritualism is abstract materialism; abstract materialism is the abstract spiritualism of matter.</p> <p>In regard to the former, both North and South Poles are poles; their essence is identical. In the same way both female and male gender are of one species, one nature, i.e., human nature. North and South Poles are opposed determinations of one essence, the variation of one essence brought to its highest degree of development. They are the differentiated essence. They are what they are only as differentiated determinations; that is, each is this differentiated determination of the one same essence. Truly in real extremes would be Pole and non-Pole, human and non-human gender. Difference here is one of existence, whereas there [i.e., in the case of Pole and non-Pole, etc.,] difference is one of essence, i.e., the difference between two essences. in regard to the second [i.e. where each extreme is its other extreme], the chief characteristic lies in the fact that a concept (existence, etc.) is taken abstractly, and that it does not have significance as independent but rather as an abstraction from another, and only as this abstraction. Thus, for example, spirit is only the abstraction from matter. It is evident that precisely because this form is to be the content of the concept, its real essence is rather the abstract opposite, i.e., the object from which it abstracts taken in its abstraction — in this case, abstract materialism.</p> <p>Had the difference within the existence of one essence not been confused, in part, with the abstraction given independence (an abstraction not from another, of course, but from itself) and, in part, with the actual opposition of mutually exclusive essences, then a three-fold error could have been avoided, namely:</p> <p>1. that because only the extreme is true, every abstraction and one-sidedness takes itself to be the truth, whereby a principle appears to be only an abstraction from another instead of a totality in itself;</p> <p>2. that the decisiveness of actual opposites, their formation into extremes, which is nothing other than their self-knowledge as well as their inflammation to the decision to fight, is thought to be something which should be prevented if possible, in other words, something harmful;</p> <p>3. that their mediation is attempted. For no matter how firmly both extremes appear, in their existence, to be actual and to be extremes, it still lies only in the essence of the one to be an extreme, and it does not have for the other the meaning of true actuality.</p> <p>The one infringes upon the other, but they do not occupy a common position. For example, Christianity, or religion in general, and philosophy are extremes. But in fact religion is not a true opposite to philosophy, for philosophy comprehends religion in its illusory actuality. Thus, for philosophy — in so far as it seeks to be an actuality — religion is dissolved in itself. There is no actual duality of essence. More on this later.</p> <p>The question arises, why does Hegel need a new mediation on the side of the Estates at all? Or does he share with [others] 'the popular, but not dangerous prejudice, which regards the Estates principally from the point of view of their opposition to the executive, as if that were their essential attitude'? (Remark to § 302.)</p> <p>The fact of the matter is simply this: On the one hand we have seen that it is only in the legislature that civil society as the element of the Estates, and the power of the crown as the element of the executive have taken on the spirit of actual, immediately practical opposition.</p> <p>On the other hand, the legislature is the totality. In it we find (1) the deputation of the sovereign principle, i.e., the executive; (2) the deputation of civil society, i.e., the Estates; but in addition, (3) the one extreme as such, i.e., the sovereign principle; while the other extreme, civil society, does not exist in it as such. It is only because of this that the Estates become the extreme to the sovereign principle, when civil society really should be. As we have seen, only as Estates does civil society organise itself into a political existence. The Estates are its political existence, its transubstantiation into the political state. Again as we have seen, only the legislature is, therefore, the actual political state in its totality. Here, then, there is (1) sovereign principle, (2) executive, (3) civil society. The Estates are the civil society of the political state, i.e., the legislature. The extreme to the sovereign, which civil society was supposed to have been, is therefore the Estates. (Because civil society is the non-actuality of political existence, the political existence of civil society is its own dissolution, its separation from itself.) Therefore it also constitutes an opposition to t executive.</p> <p>Hegel, therefore, again designates the Estates as the extreme of empirical universality, which is actually civil society itself. (Hence he unnecessarily allows the Estates, as an element in political life, to proceed from the Corporations and different classes. This procedure would make sense only if the distinct classes as such were in fact the legislative classes, if, accordingly, the distinction of civil society — i.e., its civil character - were re vera the political character. We would then not have a legislature of the state as a whole, but rather a legislature of the various estates, Corporations, and classes over the state as a whole. The estates [or classes] of civil society would receive no political character, but would rather determine the political state. They would make their particularity a power determining the whole. They would be the power of the particular over the universal. And we would not have one legislature, but several, which would come to terms among themselves and with the executive. However, Hegel has in mind the Estates in the modern sense, namely the actualisation of state citizenship, or of the Bourgeois. He does not want the actual universal, the political state, to be determined by civil society, but rather civil society to be determined by the state. Thus while he accepts the Estates in their medieval form, he gives them the opposite significance, namely, that of being determined by the political state. The Estates as representatives of the Corporations, etc., would not be empirical universality, but rather empirical particularity, i.e., the particularity of the empirical!) The legislature, therefore, needs mediation within itself, that is to say, a concealment of the opposition. And this mediation must come from the Estates because in the legislature the Estates lose their significance of being the representation of civil society and become the primary element, the very civil society of the legislature. The legislature is the totality of the political state and, precisely because of this, the contradiction of the political state brought forcibly to appearance. Thus it is also its established dissolution. Entirely different principles collide within it. To be sure, it appears to be the opposition between the two elements, that of the sovereign principle and that of the Estates, and so forth. But in fact it is the antinomy of political state and civil society, the self-contradiction of the abstract political state. The legislature is the established revolt. (Hegel's chief mistake consists in the fact that he conceives of the contradiction in appearance as being a unity in essence, i.e., in the Idea; whereas it certainly has something more profound in its essence, namely, an essential contradiction. For example here, the contradiction in the legislature itself is nothing other than the contradiction of the political state, and thus also the self-contradiction of civil society.</p> <p>Vulgar criticism falls into an opposite dogmatic error. Thus, for example, it criticises the constitution, drawing attention to the opposition Of the powers etc. It finds contradictions everywhere. But criticism that struggles with its opposite remains dogmatic criticism, as for example in earlier times, when the dogma of the Blessed Trinity was set aside by appealing to the contradiction between 1 and 3. True criticism, however, shows the internal genesis of the Blessed Trinity in the human mind. it describes the act of its birth. Thus, true philosophical criticism of the present state constitution not only shows the contradictions as existing, but clarifies them, grasps their essence and necessity. It comprehends their own proper significance. However, this comprehension does not, as Hegel thinks, consist in everywhere recognising the determinations of the logical concept, but rather in grasping the proper logic of the proper object.)</p> <p>As Hegel expresses it, the position of the political Estates relative to the sovereign implies the possibility, though no more, of harmonisation, and the equally likely possibility of set hostility.</p> <p>The possibility of hostility is implied everywhere different volitions meet. Hegel himself says that the possibility of harmonisation is the possibility of hostility. Thus, he must now construct an element which is both the impossibility of hostility and the actuality of harmonisation. For him, such an element would be the freedom of decision and thought in face of the sovereign will and the executive. Thus it would no longer be an element belonging to the Estates as an element in political life. Rather, it would be an element of the sovereign will and the executive, and would stand in the same opposition to the actual Estates as does the executive itself</p> <p>This demand is already quite muted by the conclusion of the paragraph:</p> <p>From the point of view of the crown, the executive already has this character (see § 300). So, from the point of view of the classes, one moment in them must be adapted to the task of existing as in essence the moment of mediation.</p> <p>The moment which is dispatched from the estates [or classes] must have a character the reverse of that which the executive has from the point of view of the sovereign, since the sovereign and the estates are opposite extremes. Just as the sovereign democratises himself in the executive, so this estate element must monarchise itself in its deputation. Thus what Hegel wants is a moment of sovereignty issuing from the estates. Just as the executive has an estate-moment on behalf of the sovereign, so there should also be a sovereign-moment on behalf of the estates.</p> <p>The actuality of harmonisation and the impossibility of hostility converts into the following demand: 'So, from the point of view of the classes, one moment in them must be adapted to the task of existing as in essence the moment of mediation.' Adapted to the task! According to § 302 the Estates as a whole have this task. It should not say 'task' but rather 'certainty'. And what kind of task is this anyway which exists as in essence the moment of mediation — being in 'essence' Buridan's ass?</p> <p>The fact of the matter is simply this:</p> <p>The Estates are supposed to be the mediation between the crown and the executive on the one hand, and the crown and the people on the other. But they are not this, but rather the organised political opposition to civil society. The legislature in itself is in need of mediation, and indeed a mediation coming from the Estates, as has been shown. The presupposed moral harmonisation of the two wills, the will of the state as sovereign will and the will of the state as the will of civil society, does not suffice. Indeed only the legislature is the organised, total political state; yet, precisely in it appears, because it is in its highest degree of development, the open contradiction of the political state with itself. Thus, the appearance of a real identity of the sovereign and Estate wills must be established. Either the Estates must be established as the sovereign will or the sovereign will established as the Estates. The Estates must establish themselves as the actuality of a will which is not the will of the Estates. The unity which is non-existent in essence (otherwise it would have to prove itself by the Estates' efficacy and not by their mode of existing) must at least be present in existence, or else an existing instance of the legislature (of the Estates) has the task of being the unity of what is not united. This moment of the Estates, the Chamber of Peers, the Upper House, etc., is the highest synthesis of the political state in the organisation just considered. With that, however, Hegel does not achieve what he wants, namely, the actuality of harmonisation and the impossibility of set hostility; rather, the whole thing remains at the point of the possibility of harmonisation. However, it is the established illusion of the internal unity of the political state (of the sovereign will and that of the Estates, and furthermore of the principle of the political state and that of civil society), the illusion of this unity as material principle, that is to say, such that not only two opposed principles unite but that the unity is that of one nature or existential ground. The Estates, as this moment, are the romanticism of the political state, the dreams of its substantiality or internal harmony. They are an allegorical existence.</p> <p>Whether this illusion is an effective illusion or a conscious self-deception depends now on the actual status quo of the relationship between the Estate and sovereign-elements. As long as the Estates and the crown in fact harmonise, or get along together, the illusion in its essential unity is an actual, and thus effective illusion. But on the other hand, should the truth of the illusion become manifest, then it becomes a conscious lie and a ridicule.</p> <p>§ 305. The principle of one of the classes of civil society is in itself capable of adaptation to this political position. The class in question is the one whose ethical life is natural, whose basis is family life, and, so far as its livelihood is concerned, the possession of land. Its particular members attain their position by birth, just as the monarch does, and, in common with him, they possess a will which rests on itself alone.</p> <p>We have already demonstrated Hegel's inconsistencies: (1) conceiving of the Estates in their modern abstraction from civil society etc., after having them proceed from Corporations; (2) determining them now once again according to the class distinction of civil society, after having already determined the political Estates as such to be the extreme of empirical universality.</p> <p>To be consistent one would have to examine the political Estates by themselves as a new element, and then construct out of them the mediation which was demanded in § 304.</p> <p>But now we see how Hegel reintroduces civil class distinction and, at the same time, makes it appear that it is not the actuality and particular nature of civil class distinction which determines the highest political sphere, the legislature, but rather the reverse, that civil class distinction declines to a pure matter which the political sphere forms and constructs in accordance with its need, a need which arises out of the political sphere itself.</p> <p>The principle of one of the classes of civil society is in itself capable of adaptation to this political position. The class in question is one whose ethical life is natural. (The agricultural class.)</p> <p>What, then, does this principle capability, or capability in principle of the agricultural class consist in?</p> <p>Its basis is family life, and, so far as its livelihood is concerned, the possession of land. Its particular members attain their position by birth, just as the monarch does, and, in common with him, they possess a will which rests on itself alone.</p> <p>The will which rests on itself alone is related to its livelihood, i.e., the possession of land, to its position by birth which it has in common with the monarch, and to family life, as its basis.</p> <p>Livelihood as possession of land and a will which rests on itself alone are two quite different things. One should rather say a will which rests on ground and soil. One should rather speak of a will resting on the disposition of the state, not of one resting on itself but in the whole. The possession of land takes the place of the disposition, or the possession of political spirit.</p> <p>Furthermore, in regard to family life as basis, the social ethical life of civil society appears to occupy a higher position than this natural ethical life. Moreover, family life is the natural ethical life of the other classes, of the civil as well as the agricultural class of civil society. But the fact that 'family life' is, in the case of the agricultural class, not only the principle of the family but also the basis of this class' social existence in general, seems to disqualify it for the highest political task; for this class will apply patriarchal laws to a non-patriarchal sphere, and will think and act in terms of child or father, master and servant, where the real questions are the political state and political citizenship.</p> <p>Regarding the monarch's position by birth, Hegel has not developed a patriarchal but rather a modern constitutional king. His position by birth consists in his being the bodily representative of the state and in being born as king, or in the kingdom being his family inheritance. But what does this have in common with family life as the basis of the agricultural class; and what does natural ethical-life have in common with position by birth as such? The king has this in common with a horse, namely, just as the horse is born a horse so the king is born a king.</p> <p>Had Hegel made the class distinction, which he already accepted, a political distinction, then the agricultural class as such would already be an independent part of the Estates; and if it is as such a moment of mediation with the principality, why would the construction of a new mediation be necessary? And why separate it off from the actual moment of the Estates, since this moment achieves its abstract position vis-a-vis the crown only because of this separation? After he has developed the political Estates as a specific element, as a transubstantiation of the unofficial class into state citizenship, and precisely because of this has found the mediation to be a necessity, by what right does Hegel dissolve this organism once more into the distinction of the unofficial class, and thus into the unofficial class, and then derive from it the political state's mediation with itself?</p> <p>In any case, what an anomaly, that the highest synthesis of the political state is nothing but the synthesis of landed property and family life!</p> <p>In a word:</p> <p>If civil classes as such are political classes, then the mediation is not needed; and if this mediation is needed, then the civil class is not political, and thus also not this mediation. The member of the agricultural class is not as such, but as state citizen, a part of the political Estates; while in the opposite case (i.e., where he, as member of the agricultural class, is state citizen, or as state citizen is member of this class), his state citizenship is membership in the agricultural class; and then he is not, as member of this class, a state citizen, but is as state citizen a member of this class!</p> <p>Here, then, we find one of Hegel's inconsistencies within his own way of viewing things; and such an inconsistency is an accommodation. The political Estates in the modern sense, which is the sense developed by Hegel, constitute the frilly established separation of civil society from its unofficial class and its distinctions. How can Hegel make the unofficial class the solution of the antinomies which the legislature has within itself? Hegel wants the medieval system of Estates, but in the modern sense of the legislature; and he wants the modern legislature, but within the framework of the medieval system of Estates! This is syncretism at its worst.</p> <p>The beginning of § 304 reads:</p> <p>The Estates, as an element in political life, still retail). in their own function the class distinctions already present in the lower spheres of civil life.</p> <p>But in their own function, the Estates, as an element in political life, retain this distinction only by annulling it, negating it within themselves, abstracting themselves from it.</p> <p>Should the agricultural class — or, as we will hear later, the empowered agricultural class, aristocratic landed property — become as such, and as described, the mediation of the total political state, i.e., of the legislature within itself, then it is certainly the mediation of the political Estates with the crown, in the sense of being the dissolution of the political Estates as an actual political clement. Not the agricultural class, but class, the unofficial class, the analysis (reduction) of the political Estates into the unofficial class, constitutes here the re-established unity of the political state with itself. (The mediation here is not the agricultural class as such, but rather its separation from the political Estates in its quality as civil unofficial class; that is, its unofficial class [reality] gives it a separate position within the political Estates, whereupon the other section of the political Estates is also given the position of a particular unofficial class, and, therefore, it ceases to represent the state citizenship of civil society.) Here then, the political state no longer exists as two opposed wills; rather, on the one side stands the political state (the executive and the sovereign), and on the other side stands civil society in its distinction from the political state (the various classes). With that, then, the political state as a totality is abolished.</p> <p>The other sense of the duplication of the political Estates within themselves as a mediation with the crown is, in general, this: the internal separation of the political Estates, their own inner opposition, is a re-established unity with the crown. The fundamental dualism between the crown and the Estates as an element in the legislature is neutralised by the dualism within the Estates themselves. With Hegel, however, this neutralisation is effected by the political Estates separating themselves from their political element.</p> <p>We will return later to the subject of possession of land as livelihood, which is supposed to accord with sovereignty of Will, i.e., the sovereignty of the crown, and to family life as the basis of the agricultural class, which is supposed to accord with the position by birth of the crown. What is developed here in § 305 is the principle of the agricultural class which is in itself capable of adaptation to this political position.</p> <p>§ 306 deals with the adaption to political position and significance; it reduces to the following: 'Their wealth becomes inalienable, entailed, and burdened by primogeniture. Thus, primogeniture would be the adaption of the agricultural class to politics.</p> <p>Primogeniture is grounded, so it says in the Addition, on the fact that the state should be able to reckon not on the bare possibility of political inclinations, but on something necessary. Now an inclination for politics is of course not bound up with wealth, but there is a relatively necessary connection between the two, because a man with independent means is not hemmed in by external circumstances and so there is nothing to prevent him from entering politics and working for the state.</p> <p>First sentence: The state is not content with the bare possibility of political inclinations, but should be able to reckon on something necessary.<br class='autobr' /> Second sentence: An inclination for politics is of course not bound up with wealth; that is, the inclination for politics in those of wealth is a bare possibility.<br class='autobr' /> Third sentence: But there is a relatively necessary connection, namely, a man with independent means etc. finds nothing to prevent him from working for the state; that is, the means provide the possibility of political inclinations. But according to the first sentence, this possibility precisely does not suffice.</p> <p>In addition, Hegel has failed to show that possession of land is the sole independent means.</p> <p>The adaption of its means to independence is the adaption of the agricultural class to political position and significance. In other words, independent means is its political position and significance.</p> <p>This independence is further developed as follows:</p> <p>Its wealth is independent of the state's capital. 'State's capital' here apparently means the government treasury. In this respect the universal class, as essentially dependent on the state, stands in opposition.</p> <p>As it says in the Preface:</p> <p>Apart from anything else philosophy with us is not, as it was with the Greeks for instance, pursued in private like an art, but has an existence in the open, in contact with the public, and especially, or even only, in the service of the state.</p> <p>Thus, philosophy is also essentially dependent upon the government treasury.</p> <p>Its ['the agricultural class'] wealth is independent of the uncertainty of business, the quest for profit, and any sort of fluctuation in possessions. From this aspect it is opposed by the business class as the one which is dependent on needs and concentrated on their satisfaction.</p> <p>This wealth is independent of favour, whether from the executive or the mob.</p> <p>Finally, it is even fortified against its own wilfulness, because those members of this class who are called to political life are not entitled, as other citizens are, either to dispose of their entire property at will, or to the assurance that it will pass to their children, whom they love equally, in similarly equal divisions.</p> <p>Here the oppositions have taken on an entirely new and materialistic form such as we would hardly expect to find in the heaven of the political state.</p> <p>In sharpest terms, the opposition, as Hegel develops it, is the opposition of private property and wealth.</p> <p>The possession of land is private property kat exohin true private property. Its exact private nature is prominent (1) as independence from state capital, from favour from the executive, from property existing as universal property of the political state, a particular wealth which, alongside of other wealth, is in accordance with the construction of the political state; (2) as independence from the need of society or the social wealth, from favour from the mob. (Equally significant is the fact that a share in state capital is understood as favour from the executive just as a share in the social wealth is understood as favour from the mob.) Neither the wealth of the universal class nor that of the business class is true private property, because such wealth is occasioned, in the former case directly, in the latter case indirectly, by the connection with the universal wealth, or property as social property; both are a participation in it, and therefore both are mediated through favour, that is, through the contingency of will. In opposition to that stands the possession of land as sovereign private property, which has not yet acquired the form of wealth, i.e., property established by the social will.</p> <p>Thus, at its highest point the political constitution is the constitution of private property. The highest political inclination is the inclination of private property. Primogeniture is merely the external appearance of the internal nature of the possession of land. Because it is inalienable, its social nerves have been severed and- its isolation from civil society is secured. By not passing on to the children whom they love equally, it is independent even of the smallest society, the natural society, the family. By having withdrawn from the volition and laws of the family it thus safeguards its rough nature of private property against the transition into family wealth.</p> <p>In § 305, Hegel declared the class of landed property to be capable of adaption to the political position because family life would be its basis. But he himself has declared love to be the basis, the principle, the spirit of family life. The class whose basis is family life thus lacks the basis of family life, i.e., love, as the actual and thus effective and determining principle. It is spiritless family life, the illusion of family life. In its highest form of development, the principle of private property contradicts the principle of the family. Family life in civil society becomes family life, the life of love, only in opposition to the class of natural ethical life, [which is, according to Hegel] the class of family life. This latter is, rather, the barbarism of private property against family life.</p> <p>This, then, would be the sovereign splendour of private property, of possession of land, about which so many sentimentalities have recently been uttered and on behalf of which so many multi-colored crocodile tears have been shed. It does not help Hegel to say that primogeniture would be merely a requirement of politics and would have to be understood in its political position and significance. Neither does it help him to say: 'The security and stability of the agricultural class may be still further increased by the institution of primogeniture, though this institution is desirable only from the point of view of politics, since it entails a sacrifice for the political end of giving the eldest son a life of independence. There is a certain decency of mind in Hegel. He does not want primogeniture in and for itself, but only in reference to something else, not as something self-determined but as something determined by another, not as an end but as a means for justifying and constructing an end. In fact, primogeniture is a consequence of the exact possession of land; it is petrified private property, private property (quand même) in the highest independence and sharpness of its development. What Hegel presents as the end, the determining factor, the prima causa, of primogeniture is, instead, an effect, a consequence of the power of abstract private property over the political state, while Hegel presents primogeniture as the power of the political state over private property. He makes the cause the effect and the effect the cause, the determining that which has been determined and that which has been determined the determining.</p> <p>What then is the content of political adaption, of the political end: what is the end of this end, what is its substance? Primogeniture, the superlative of private property, sovereign private property. What kind of power does the political state exercise over private property in primogeniture? Does the state isolate it from the family and society and bring it to its abstract autonomy? What then is the power of the political state over private property? Private property's own power, its essence brought to existence. What remains to the political state in opposition to this essence? The illusion that it determines when it is rather determined. indeed, it breaks the will of the family and of society, but merely in order to give existence to the will of private property lacking family and society, and to acknowledge this existence as the highest existence of the political state, as the highest ethical existence.</p> <p>Let us consider the various elements as they relate here in the legislature to the total state, the state having achieved actuality, consistency, and consciousness, i.e., to the actual political state in connection with the ideal or what ought be, with the logical character and form of these elements.</p> <p>(Primogeniture is not, as Hegel says, a chain on the freedom of private rights; it is rather the freedom of private rights which has freed itself from all social and ethical chains.) (The highest political construction is the construction of abstract private property.)</p> <p>Before we make this comparison we should first consider more closely one statement of the paragraph, namely, that because of primogeniture the wealth of the agricultural class, possession of land, private property, is even fortified against its own wilfulness, because those members of this class who are called to political life are not entitled, as other citizens are, to dispose of their entire property at will'.</p> <p>We have already indicated how the social nerves of private property are severed because of the inalienability of landed property. Private property (landed property) is fortified against the owner's own wilfulness by having the sphere of his wilfulness suddenly changed from a universal human sphere into the specific wilfulness of private property. In other words, private property has become the subject of the will, and the will is merely the predicate of private property. Private property is no longer a determined object of wilfulness, but rather wilfulness is the determined predicate of private property. Yet let us compare this with what Hegel himself says about the sphere of private rights:</p> <p>§ 65. The reason I can alienate my property is that it is mine only in so far as I put my will into it ... provided always that the thing in question is a thing external by nature.</p> <p>§ 66. Therefore those goods, or rather substantive characteristics, which constitute my own private personality and the universal essence of my self-consciousness are inalienable and my right to them is imprescriptible. Such characteristics are my personality as such, my universal freedom of will, my ethical life, my religion.</p> <p>Therefore in primogeniture landed property, exact private property, becomes an inalienable good, thus a substantive characteristic which constitutes the very private personality and universal essence of self-consciousness of the class of noble entailed estates, its personality as such, its universal freedom of will, its ethical life, its religion. Thus it is also consistent to say that where private property, landed property, is inalienable, universal freedom of will (to which also belongs free disposition of something alienable, like landed property) and ethical life (to which also belongs love as the actual spirit of the family, the spirit which is also identified with the actual law of the family) are alienable. in general then, the inalienability of private property is the alienability of universal freedom of will and ethical life. Here it is no longer the case that property is in so far as I put my will into it, but rather my will is in so far as it is in property. Here my will does not own but is owned. This is precisely the romantic itch of the nobility of primogeniture, namely, that here private property, and thus private wilfulness in its most abstract form - the totally ignorant, unethical, crude will — appears to be the highest synthesis of the political state, the highest renunciation of wilfulness, the hardest and most self-sacrificing struggle with human weakness; for what appears here to be human weakness is actually the humanising, the humanisation of private property.</p> <p>Primogeniture is private property which has become a religion for itself, which has become absorbed in itself, enchanted with its autonomy and nobility. Just as primogeniture is derived from direct alienation, so too it is derived from the contract. Hegel presents the transition from property to contract in the following manner:</p> <p>§ 71. Existence as determinate being is in essence being for another;... One aspect of property is that it is an existent as an external thing, and in this respect property exists for other external things and is connected with their necessity and contingency. But it is also an existent as an embodiment of will, and from this point of view the 'other' for which it exists can only be the will of another person. This relation of will to will is the true and proper ground in which freedom is existent. — The sphere of contract is made up of this mediation whereby I hold property not merely by means of a thing and my subjective will but by means of another person's will as well and so hold it in virtue of my participation in a common will.</p> <p>(In primogeniture it has been made a state law to hold property not in one common will, but merely by means of a thing and my subjective will.) While Hegel here perceives in private rights the alienability and dependence of private property on a common will as its true idealism, in state rights, on the other hand, he praises the imaginary nobility of independent property as opposed to the uncertainty of business, the quest for profit, any sort of fluctuation in possessions, and dependence on the state's capital. What kind of state is this that cannot even tolerate the idealism of private rights? And what kind of philosophy of right is this in which the independence of private property has diverse meanings in the spheres of private and state rights?</p> <p>Over against the crude stupidity of independent private property, the uncertainty of business is elegiac, the quest for profit solemn (dramatic), fluctuation in possessions a serious fatum (tragic), dependence on the state's capital ethical. In short, in all of these qualities the human heart pulses throughout the property, which is the dependence of man on man. No matter how it may be constituted it is human toward the slave who believes himself to be free, because the sphere that limits him is not society but the soil. The freedom of this will is its emptiness of content other than that of private property.</p> <p>To define monstrosities like primogeniture as a determination of private property by the state is absolutely unavoidable if one interprets an old world view in terms of a new one, if one attributes to a thing, as in this case to private property, a double meaning, one in the court of abstract right and an opposed one in the heaven of the political state.</p> <p>Now we come to the comparison mentioned earlier. § 257 says:</p> <p>The state is the actuality of the ethical Idea. It is ethical mind qua the substantial will manifest and revealed to itself.. The state exists immediately in custom, mediately in individual self-consciousness ... while self-consciousness in virtue of its sentiment towards the state finds in the state, as its essence and the end and product of its activity, its substantive freedom.</p> <p>§ 268 says:</p> <p>The political sentiment, patriotism pure and simple, is assured conviction with truth as its basis... and a volition which has become habitual. In this sense it is simply a product of the institutions subsisting in the state, since rationality is actually present in the state, while action in conformity with these institutions gives rationality its practical proof. This sentiment is, in general, trust (which may pass over into a greater or lesser degree of educated insight), or the consciousness that my interest, both substantive and particular, is contained and preserved in another's (i.e., in the state's) interest and end, i.e., in the other's relation to me as an individual. In this way, this very other is immediately not another in my eyes, and in being conscious of this fact I am free.</p> <p>Here, the actuality of the ethical Idea appears as the religion of private property (because in primogeniture private property relates to itself in a religious manner, so it happens that in our modern times religion in general has become a quality inherent in landed property, and that all of the writings on the nobility of primogeniture are full of religious unction. Religion is the highest thought form of this brutality.) The substantial will manifest and revealed to itself changes into a will dark and broken on the soil, a will enraptured precisely with the impenetrability of the element to which it is attached. The assured conviction with truth as its basis, which is political sentiment, is the conviction standing on 'its own ground' (in the literal sense). The political volition which has become habitual no longer remains simply a product [of the institutions subsisting in the state], but rather an institution subsisting outside the state. The political sentiment is no longer trust but rather the reliance, the consciousness that my interest, both substantive and particular, is independent of another's (i.e., the state's) interest and end, i.e., in the other's relation to me as an individual. This is the consciousness of my freedom from the state.</p> <p>The maintenance of the state's universal interest etc. was (§ 289) the task of the executive. In it resided the consciousness of right and the developed intelligence of the mass of the people (§ 297). It actually makes the Estates superfluous, for even without the Estates they [i.e., the highest civil servants] are able to do what is best, just as they also continually have to do while the Estates are in session (Remark to § 301). The universal class, or, more precisely, the class of civil servants, must, purely in virtue of its character as universal, have the universal as the end of its essential activity [§ 303].</p> <p>And how does the universal class, the executive, appear now? As essentially dependent upon the state, as wealth dependent upon the favour of the executive. The very same transformation has occurred within civil society, which earlier achieved its ethical life in the Corporation. It is a wealth dependent upon the uncertainty of business etc., upon the favour of the mob.</p> <p>What then is the quality which ostensibly specifies the owners of entailed estates? And what, in any case, constitutes the ethical quality of an inalienable wealth? Incorruptibility. Incorruptibility appears to be the highest political virtue, an abstract virtue. Yet, incorruptibility in the state as constructed by Hegel is something so uncommon that it has to be built up into a particular political power; which precisely proves, that incorruptibility is not the spirit of the political state, not the rule but the exception, and is constructed as such. The owners of entailed estates are corrupted by their independent property in order that they be preserved from corruption. While according to the idea dependence upon the state and the feeling of this dependence is supposed to be the highest political freedom, here the independent private person is constructed; because political freedom is the private person's feeling of being an abstract, dependent person, whereas he feels and should feel independent only as a citizen. Its capital is independent alike of the state's capital, the uncertainty of business, etc. In opposition to it stands the business class, which is dependent on needs and concentrated on their satisfaction, and the civil servant class, which is essentially dependent upon the state. Here, therefore, independence from the state and civil society and this actualised abstraction of both, which in reality is the crudest dependence on the soil, forms in the legislature the mediation and the unity of both. Independent private wealth, i.e., abstract private wealth and the corresponding private person, are the highest political construction of the state. Political independence is constructed as independent private property and the person of this independent private property. We shall see in the following paragraph what the situation is re vera regarding this independence and incorruptibility, and the political sentiment arising from them.</p> <p>The fact that primogeniture is inherited, or entailed wealth speaks for itself. More about this later. The fact that it accrues to the first-born is, as Hegel notes in the Addition, purely historical.</p> <p>§ 307. The right of this section of the agricultural class is thus based in a way on the natural principle of the family. But this principle is at the same time reversed owing to hard sacrifices made for political ends, and thereby the activity of this class is essentially directed to those ends. As a consequence of this, this class is summoned and entitled to its political vocation by birth without the hazards of election.</p> <p>Hegel has failed to develop the way in which the right of this agricultural class is based on the natural principle of the family, unless by this he understands that landed property exists as entailed or inherited wealth. That, however, establishes no right of this class in the political sense, but only the birthright of the owners of entailed estates to landed property. 'This', i.e., the natural principle of the family, is 'at the same time reversed owing to hard sacrifices made for political ends'. We have certainly seen how the natural principle of the family is reversed; this, however, is no hard sacrifice made for political ends, but rather the actualised abstraction of private property. But with this reversal of the natural principle of the family the political ends are likewise reversed, 'thereby (?) the activity of this class is essentially directed to those ends' — because private property received independence? - and 'as a consequence of this, this class is summoned and entitled to its political vocation by birth without the hazards of election'.</p> <p>Here then participation in the legislature is an innate human right. Here we have born legislators, i.e., born mediation of the political state with itself. innate human rights have been mocked, especially on behalf of the owners of entailed estates. Isn't it even more humorous that one particular group of men is entrusted with the right to the highest honour, the legislature? In Hegel's treatment of the summons to the legislator, to the representative of state citizenship, there is nothing more ridiculous than his opposing summons by birth to summons by the hazards of election. As if election, the conscious product of civil trust, would not stand in a completely different necessary connection with the political ends than does the physical accident of birth. Hegel everywhere falls from his political spiritualism into the crassest materialism. At the summit of the political state it is always birth that makes determinate individuals into embodiments of the highest political tasks. The highest political activities coincide with individuals by reason of birth, Just like an animal's position, character, way of life, etc. are immediately inborn. in its highest functions the state acquires an animal actuality. Nature takes revenge on Hegel for the disdain he showed it. If matter is supposed to constitute no longer anything for itself over against the human will, the human will no longer retains anything for itself except the matter.</p> <p>The false identity, the fragmentary and sporadic identity of nature and spirit, body and soul, appears as incarnation. Since birth gives man only an individual existence and establishes him merely as a natural individual, and since the functions of the state - as for instance the legislature, etc. are social products, i.e., births of society and not procreations of the natural individual, then what is striking and miraculous is precisely the immediate identity, the sudden coincidence, of the individual's birth with the individual as individuation of a certain social position, function, etc. — In this system, nature immediately creates kings, peers, etc. Just as it creates eyes and noses. What is striking is to see as immediate product of the physical species what is only the product of the self-conscious species. I am man by birth, without the agreement of society; yet only through universal agreement does this determinate birth become peer or king. Only the agreement makes the birth of this man the birth of a king. It is therefore the agreement, not birth, that makes the king. If birth, in distinction from other determinations, immediately endows man with a position, then his body makes him this determined social functionary. His body is his social right. In this system, the physical dignity of man, or the dignity of the human body (with further elaboration, meaning: the dignity of the physical natural element of the state), appears in such a form that determinate dignities, specifically the highest social dignities, are the dignities of certain bodies which are determined and predestined by birth to be such. This is, of course, why we find in the aristocracy such pride in blood and descent, in short, in the life history of their body. It is this zoological point of view which has its corresponding science in heraldry. The secret of aristocracy is zoology.</p> <p>Two moments in hereditary primogeniture are to be stressed:</p> <p>1. That which is permanent is entailed wealth, landed property. This is the preserving moment in the relation — the substance. The master of the entailed estate, the owner, is really a mere accident. Landed property anthropomorphises itself in the various generations. Landed property always inherits, as it were, the first born of the house as an attribute linked to it. Every first born in the line of land owners is the inheritance, the property, of the inalienable landed property, which is the predestined substance of his will and activity. The subject is the thing and the predicate is the man. The will becomes the property of the property.</p> <p>2. The political quality of the owner of the entailed estate is the political quality of his inherited wealth, a political quality inhering in his inherited wealth. Here, therefore, the political quality appears also as the property of landed property, as a quality which is ascribed directly to the bare physical earth (nature).</p> <p>Regarding the first point, it follows that the owner of the entailed estate is the serf of the landed property, and that in the serfs who are subordinated to him there appears only the practical consequence of the theoretical relationship with landed property in which he himself stands. The depth of German subjectivity appears everywhere as the crudity of a mindless objectivity.</p> <p>Here we must analyse (1) the relation between private property and inheritance, (2) the relation between private property, inheritance, and, thereby, the privilege of certain generations to participate in political sovereignty, (3) the actual historical relation, or the Germanic relation.</p> <p>We have seen that primogeniture is the abstraction of independent private property. A second consequence follows from this. Independence, autonomy, in the political state whose construction we have followed so far, is private property, which at its peak appears as inalienable landed property. Political independence thus flows not ex proprio sinu of the political state; it is not a gift of the political state to its members, nor is it the animating spirit [of the political state]. Rather, the members of the political state receive their independence from a being which is not the being of the political state, from a being of abstract private right, namely, from abstract private property. Political independence is an accident of private property and not the substance of the political state. The political state — and within it the legislature, as we have seen — is the unveiled mystery of the true value and essence of the moments of the state. The significance that private property has in the political state is its essential, its true significance; the significance that class distinction has in the political state is the essential significance of class distinction. In the same way, the essence of the sovereign and of the executive come to appearance in the legislature. It is here, in the sphere of the political state, that the individual moments of the state relate to themselves as to the being of the species, the 'species-being'; because the political state is the sphere of their universal character, i.e., their religious sphere. The political state is the mirror of truth for the various moments of the concrete state.</p> <p>Thus, if independent private property in the political state, in the legislature, has the significance of political independence, then it is the political independence of the state. Independent private property, or actual private property is then not only the support of the constitution but the constitution itself. And isn't the support of the constitution nothing other than the constitution of constitutions, the primary, the actual constitution?</p> <p>Hegel himself was surprised about the immanent development of science, the derivation of its entire content from the concept in its simplicity (Remark to § 279), when he was constructing the hereditary monarch, and made the following remark:</p> <p>Hence it is the basic moment of personality, abstract at the start in immediate rights, which has matured itself through its various forms of subjectivity, and now — at the stage of absolute rights, of the state, of the completely concrete objectivity of the will — has become the personality of the state, its certainty of itself.</p> <p>That is, in the political state it comes to appearance that abstract personality is the highest political personality, the political basis of the entire state. Likewise, in primogeniture, the right of this abstract personality, its objectivity, abstract private property, comes into existence as the highest objectivity of the state, i.e., as its highest right.</p> <p>The state is hereditary monarch; abstract personality means nothing other than that the personality of the state is abstract, or that it is the state of abstract personality, just as the Romans developed the rights of the monarch purely within the norms of private rights, or private rights as the highest norm of state, or political rights.</p> <p>The Romans are the rationalists, the Germans the mystics of sovereign private property.</p> <p>Hegel calls private rights the rights of abstract personality, or abstract rights. And indeed they have to be developed as the abstraction, and thus the illusory rights, of abstract personality, just as the moral doctrine developed by Hegel is the illusory existence of abstract subjectivity. Hegel develops private rights and morals as such abstractions, from which it does not follow, for him, that the state or ethical life of which they are the presuppositions can be nothing but the society (the social life) of these illusions; rather, he concludes that they are subalternate moments of this ethical life. But what are private rights except the rights of these subjects of the state, and what is morality except their morality? In other words, the person of private rights and the subject of morals are the person and the subject of the state. Hegel has been widely criticised for his development of morality. He has done nothing but develop the morality of the modern state and modern private rights. A more complete separation of morality from the state, its fuller emancipation, was desired. What did that prove except that the separation of the present-day state from morals is moral, that morals are non-political and that the state is not moral? It is rather a great, though from one aspect (namely, from the aspect that Hegel declares the state, whose presupposition is such a morality, to be the realistic idea of ethical life) an unconscious service of Hegel to have assigned to modern morality its true position.</p> <p>In the constitution, wherein primogeniture is a guarantee, private property is the guarantee of the political constitution. In primogeniture, it appears that this guarantee is a particular kind of private property. Primogeniture is merely a particular existence of the universal relationship of private property and the political state. Primogeniture is the political sense of private property, private property in its political significance, that is to say, in its universal significance. Thus the constitution here is the constitution of private property.</p> <p>With the Germanic peoples, where we encounter primogeniture in its classical formation, we also find the constitution of private property. Private property is a universal category, the universal bond of the state. Even the universal functions appear as the private property sometimes of a Corporation, sometimes of an estate.</p> <p>Trade and business in their particular nuances were the private property of particular Corporations. Royal offices, jurisdiction, etc., were the private property of particular estates. The various provinces were the private property of individual princes etc. Service for the realm was the private property of the ruler. The spirit was the private property of the spiritual authority.' One's loyal activity was the private property of another, just as one's right was, once again, a particular private property. Sovereignty, here nationality, was the private property of the Emperor.</p> <p>It has often been said that in the Middle Ages every form of right, of freedom, of social existence, appears as a privilege, an exception from the rule. The empirical fact that all these privileges appear in the form of private property could thus not have been overlooked. What is the universal reason for this coincidence? Private property is the species-existence of privilege, of right as an exception.</p> <p>Where the sovereigns, as in France for instance, attacked the independence of private property, they directed their attention more to the property of the Corporations than to that of individuals. But in attacking the private property of the Corporations they attacked private property as Corporations, i.e., as the social bond.</p> <p>In the feudal reign it almost appears that the power of the crown is the power of private property, and that the mystery of the nature of the universal power, the power of all spheres of the state, is deposited in the sovereign.</p> <p>(The powerfulness of the state is expressed in the sovereign as the representative of the power of the state. The constitutional sovereign, therefore, expresses the idea of the constitutional state in its sharpest abstraction. On the one hand he is the idea of the state, the sanctified majesty of the state, and precisely as this person. At the same time he is a pure imagination; as person and as sovereign he has neither actual power nor actual function. Here, the separation of the political and the actual, the formal and the material, the universal and the particular person, Of man and social man, is expressed in its highest contradiction.)</p> <p>Private property is a child of Roman intellect and Germanic heart. At this point it will be valuable to undertake a comparison of these two extreme developments. This will help solve the political problem as discussed.</p> <p>The Romans were the first to have formulated the right of private property, i.e., the abstract right, the private right, the right of the abstract person. The Roman conception of private right is private right in its classical formulation. Yet nowhere with the Romans do we find that the right of private property was mystified as in the case of the Germans. Nowhere does it become right of the state.</p> <p>The right of private property is jus utendi et abutendi, the right of wilfulness in disposing of a thing. The main interest of the Romans lay in developing the relationships, and in determining which ones resulted in abstract relations of private property. The actual basis of private property, the property, is a factum, an unexplainable factum, and no right. Only through legal determinations, which the society attributes to the factual property, does it receive the quality of rightful property, private property.</p> <p>Regarding the connection between the political constitution and private property with the Romans, it appears that:</p> <p>1. Man (as slave), as is generally the case with ancient peoples, is the object of private property.<br class='autobr' /> This is nothing specific.</p> <p>2. Conquered countries are treated as private property, jus utendi et abutendi being asserted in their case.</p> <p>3. In their history itself, there appears the struggle between the poor and the rich (Patricians and Plebians) etc.</p> <p>In other respects, private property as a whole, as with the ancient classical peoples in general, is asserted to be public property, either as the republic's expenditure — as in good times — or as luxurious and universal benefaction (baths, etc.) towards the mob.</p> <p>Slavery finds its explanation in the rights of war, the rights of occupation: men are slaves precisely because their political existence is destroyed.</p> <p>We especially stress two relationships in distinction from the Germans.</p> <p>1. The imperial power was not the power of private property, but rather the sovereignty of the empirical will as such, which was far from regarding private property as the bond between itself and its subjects; on the contrary, it dealt with private property as it did with all other social goods. The imperial power, therefore, was nothing other than factually hereditary. The highest formation of the right of private property, of private right, indeed belongs to the imperial epoch; however, it is a consequence of the political dissolution rather than the political dissolution being a consequence of private property. Furthermore, when private right achieved full development in Rome, state right was abolished, [or] was in the process of its dissolution, while in Germany the opposite was the case.</p> <p>2. In Rome, state honours are never hereditary; that is to say, private property is not the dominant category of the state.</p> <p>3. Contrary to German primogeniture etc., in Rome the wilfulness of the testator appears to be the derivative of private property. In this latter antithesis lies the entire difference between the German and the Roman development of private property.</p> <p>(In primogeniture it appears that private property is the relationship to the function of the state which is such that the existence of the state is something inhering in, or is an accident of, direct private property, i.e., landed property. At its highest levels the state appears as private property, whereas private property should appear as property of the state. Instead of making private property a civil quality, Hegel makes political citizenship, existence, and sentiment a quality of private property.)</p> <p>Part 6: Civil Society and the Estates §§ 308 - 313</p> <p> § 308. The second section of the Estates comprises the fluctuating element in civil society. This element can enter politics only through its deputies; the multiplicity of its members is an external reason for this, but the essential reason is the specific character of this element and its activity. Since these deputies are the deputies of civil society, it follows as a direct consequence that their appointment is made by the society as a society. That is to say, in making the appointment, society is not dispersed into atomic units, collected to perform only a single and temporary act, and kept together for a moment and no longer. On the contrary, it makes the appointment as a society, articulated into associations, communities, and Corporations, which although constituted already for other purposes, acquire in this way a connection with politics. The existence of the Estates and their assembly finds a constitutional guarantee of its own in the fact that this class is entitled to send deputies at the summons of the crown, while members of the former class are entitled to present themselves in person in the Estates (see § 307).</p> <p>Here we find a new distinction within civil society and the Estates: the distinction between a fluctuating element and an immutable element (landed property). This distinction has also been presented as that of space and time, conservative and progressive, etc. On this, see Hegel's previous paragraphs. Incidentally, by means of the Corporations, associations, etc., Hegel has made the fluctuating element of society also a stable element.</p> <p>The second distinction consists in the fact that the first element of the Estates as developed above, the owners of entailed estates, are, as such, legislators; that legislative power is an attribute of their empirical, personal existence; that they act not as deputies but as themselves; whereas in the second element of the Estates election and selection of deputies take place.</p> <p>Hegel gives two reasons why this fluctuating element of civil society can enter the political state, or legislature, only through deputies. Hegel himself calls the first reason - namely, the multiplicity of its members - external, thereby relieving us of the need of giving the same reply.</p> <p>But the essential reason, he says, is the specific character of this element and its activity. Political occupation and activity are alien to its specific character and activity.</p> <p>Hegel replays his old song about these Estates being deputies of civil society. Civil society must make the appointments as a society. Rather, civil society must do this as what it is not, because it is unpolitical society, and is supposed to perform here a political act as something essential to it and arising from it. With that it is 'dispersed into atomic units', and collected to perform only a single and temporary act, and kept together for a moment and no longer'. First of all, its political act is a single and temporary act, and can therefore only appear as such in being carried out. It is an ecstasy, an act of political society which causes a stir, and must also appear as such. Secondly, Hegel was not disturbed by the fact - indeed, he argued its necessity - that civil society materially (merely as a second society deputised by it) separates itself from its civil actuality and establishes itself as what it is not. How can he now formally dispose of this?</p> <p>He thinks that society's associations etc., which are constituted already for other purposes, acquire a connection with politics because society in its Corporations etc. appoints the deputies. But either they acquire a significance which is not their significance, or their connection as such is political, in which case it does not just 'acquire' the political tinge, as developed above, but rather in it politics acquires its connection. By designating only this part of the Estates as that of the deputy, Hegel has unwittingly stated the nature of the two Chambers (at the point where they actually have the relationship to one another he indicated). The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers (or whatever they be called) are not, in the present case, different instances of the same principle) but derive from two essentially different principles and social positions. Here the Chamber of Deputies is the political constitution of civil society in the modern sense, while the Chamber of Peers is the political constitution of civil society in the sense proper to the Estates. The Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies are opposed here as the Estate- and the political-representation of civil society. The one is the existing estate principle of civil society, the other is the actualisation of civil society's abstract political existence. It is obvious, therefore, that the latter cannot come into existence again as the representation of the estates, Corporations, etc., for it simply does not represent civil society's existence qua estate, but rather its political existence. It is further obvious, then, that only the estate element of civil society, i.e., sovereign landed property or the hereditary nobility, is seated in the former Chamber, for it is not one estate among others. Rather, the estate principle of civil society as an actually social, and thus political, principle now exists only in that one element. It is the estate. Civil society, then, has in the Chamber of the estates the representative of its medieval existence, and in the Chamber of Deputies the representative of its political (modern) existence. The only advance beyond the Middle Ages consists in the fact that estate politics has been reduced to a particular political existence alongside the politics of citizenship. The empirical political existence Hegel has in mind (England) has, therefore, a meaning entirely other than the one he imputes to it.</p> <p>The French Constitution also constitutes an advance in this regard. To be sure, it has reduced the Chamber of Peers to a pure nullity; but within the principle of constitutional kingship as Hegel has pretended to develop it, this Chamber can by its very nature be merely an empty vanity, the fiction of a harmony between the sovereign and civil society, or of the legislature or political state with itself, and a fiction, moreover, which has the form of a particular and thereby once more opposed existence.</p> <p>The French have allowed the peers to retain life tenure in order to express their independence from both the regime and the people. But they did away with the medieval expression - hereditariness. Their advance consists in their no longer allowing the Chamber of Peers to proceed from actual civil society, but in creating it in abstraction from civil society. They have the choice of peers proceed from the existing political state, from the sovereign, without binding him to any other civil quality. In this constitution the honour of being a peer actually constitutes a class in civil society which is purely political, created from the standpoint of the abstraction of the political state; but it appears to be more a political decoration than an actual class endowed with particular rights. During the Restoration the Chamber of Peers was a reminiscence, while the Chamber of Peers resulting from the July Revolution is an actual creature of constitutional monarchy.</p> <p>Since in modern times the idea of the state could appear only in the abstraction of the merely political state, or in the abstraction of civil society from itself and its actual condition, it is to the credit of the French that they have marked and produced this abstract actuality, and thereby have produced the political principle itself. The abstraction for which they are blamed is, then, a genuine consequence and product of a patriotism rediscovered, to be sure, only in an opposition, but in a necessary opposition. The merit of the French in this regard, then, is to have established the Chamber of Peers as the unique product of the political state, or in general, to have made the political principle in its uniqueness the determining and effective factor.</p> <p>Hegel also remarks that in the deputation, as he constructs it, the existence of the Estates and their assembly finds a constitutional guarantee of its own in the fact that the Corporations etc. are entitled to send deputies. Thus, the guarantee of the existence of the Estates' assembly, their truly primitive existence, becomes the privilege of the Corporations etc. With this, Hegel reverts completely to the medieval standpoint and has abandoned entirely his abstraction of the political state as the sphere of the state as state, the actually existing universal.</p> <p>In the modern sense, the existence of the Estates' assembly is the political existence of civil society, the guarantee of its political existence. To question the existence of the Estates' assembly is to question the existence of the state. Whereas patriotism, the essence of the legislature, finds its guarantee in independent private property according to Hegel, so the existence of the legislature finds its guarantee in the privileges of the Corporations.</p> <p>But the one element in the Estates is much more the political privilege of civil society, or its privilege of being political. Therefore, that element can never be the privilege of a particular civil mode of civil society's existence, and can still less find its guarantee in that mode, because it is supposed to be, rather, the universal guarantee.</p> <p>Thus Hegel is everywhere reduced to giving the political state a precarious actuality in a relationship of dependence upon another, rather than describing it as the highest, completely existing actuality of social existence; he is reduced to having it find its true existence in the other sphere rather than describing it as the true existence of the other sphere. The political state everywhere needs the guarantee of spheres lying outside it. It is not actualised power, but supported impotence. It is not the power over these supports, but the power of the support. The support is the seat of power.</p> <p>What kind of lofty existent is it whose existence needs a guarantee outside itself, and which is supposed to be at the same time the universal existence - and thus the actual guarantee - of this very guarantee. In general, in his development of the legislature Hegel everywhere retreats from the philosophical standpoint to that other standpoint which fails to examine the matter in its own terms.</p> <p>If the existence of the Estates requires a guarantee, then they are not an actual, but merely a fictitious political existence. In constitutional states, the guarantee for the existence of the Estates is the law. Thus, their existence is a legal existence, dependent on the universal nature of the state and not on the power or impotence of individual Corporations or associations; their existence is the actuality of the state as an association. (It is precisely here that the Corporations, etc., the particular spheres of civil society, should receive their universal existence for the first time. Again, Hegel anticipates this universal existence as the privilege and the existence of these particular spheres.)</p> <p>Political right as the right of Corporations etc. completely contradicts political right as political, i.e., as the right of the state and of citizenship, for political right precisely should not be the right of this existence as a particular existence, not right as this particular existence.</p> <p>Before we proceed to the category of election as the political act by which civil society decides upon its political choice, let us examine some additional statements from the Remark to this paragraph.</p> <p>To hold that every single person should share in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern o the ground that all individuals are members of the state, that its concerns are their concerns, and that it is their right that what is done should be done with their knowledge and volition, is tantamount to a proposal to put the democratic element without any rational form into the organism of the state, although it is only in virtue of the possession of such a form that the state is an organism at all. This idea comes readily to mind because it does not go beyond the abstraction of 'being a member of the state'. and it is superficial thinking which clings to abstractions. [§ 308]</p> <p>First of all, Hegel calls being a member of the state an abstraction, although according to the idea, [and therefore] the intention of his own doctrinal development, it is the highest and most concrete social determination of the legal person, of the member of the state. To stop at the abstraction of 'being a member of the state' and to conceive of individuals in terms of this abstraction does not therefore seem to be just superficial thinking which clings to abstractions. That the abstraction of 'being a member of the state' is really an abstraction is not, however, the fault of this thinking but of Hegel's line of argument and actual modern conditions, which presuppose the separation of actual life from political life and make the political quality an abstraction of actual participation in the state.</p> <p>According to Hegel, the direct participation of all in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern admits the democratic element without any rational form into the organism of the state, although it is only in virtue of the possession of such a form that the state is an organism at all. That is to say, the democratic element can be admitted only as a formal element in a state organism that is merely a formalism of the state. The democratic element should be, rather, the actual element that acquires its rational form in the whole organism of the state. If the democratic element enters the state organism or state formalism as a particular element, then the rational form of its existence means a drill, an accommodation, a form, in which it does not exhibit what is characteristic of its essence. In other words, it would enter the state organism merely as a formal principle.</p> <p>We have already pointed out that Hegel develops merely a state formalism. For him, the actual material principle is the Idea, the abstract thought-form of the state as a subject, the absolute Idea which has in it no passive or material moment. In contrast to the abstraction of this Idea the determinations of the actual, empirical state formalism appear as content; and hence the actual content (here actual man, actual society, etc.) appear as formless inorganic matter.</p> <p>Hegel had established the essence of the Estates in the fact that in them empirical universality becomes the subject of the actually existing universal. Does this mean anything other than that matters of political concern 'are their concerns, and that it is their right that what is done should be done with their knowledge and volition'? And should not the Estates precisely constitute their actualised right? And is it surprising then that all seek the actuality of what is theirs by right?</p> <p>To hold that every single person should share in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern...</p> <p>In a really rational state one could answer, 'Not every single person should share in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern', because the individuals share in deliberating and deciding on matters of general concern as the 'all', that is to say, within and as members of the society. Not all individually, but the individuals as all.</p> <p>Hegel presents himself with the dilemma: either civil society (the Many, the multitude) shares through deputies in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern or all [as] I individuals do this. This is no opposition of essence, as Hegel subsequently tries to present it, but of existence, and indeed of the most external existence, quantity. Thus, the basis which Hegel himself designated as external - the multiplicity of members - remains the best reason against the direct participation of all. The question of whether civil society should participate in the legislature either by entering it through deputies or by the direct participation of all as individuals is itself a question within the abstraction of the political state or within the abstract political state; it is an abstract political question.</p> <p>It is in both cases, as Hegel himself has developed this, the political significance of 'empirical universality'.</p> <p>In its proper form the opposition is this: the individuals participate as all, or the individuals participate as a few, as not all. In both cases allness remains merely an external plurality or totality of individuals. Allness is no essential, spiritual, actual quality of the individual. It is not something through which he would lose the character of abstract individuality. Rather, it is merely the sum total of individuality. One individuality, many individualities, all individualities. The one, the many, the all - none of these determinations changes the essence of the subject, individuality.</p> <p>All as individuals should share in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern; that is to say, then, that all should share in this not as all but as individuals.</p> <p>The question appears to contradict itself in two respects.</p> <p>The political matters of general concern are the concern of the state, the state as actual concern. Deliberation and decision is the effectuation of the state as actual concern. It seems obvious then that all the members of the state have a relationship to the state as being their actual concern. The very notion of member of the state implies their being a member of the state, a part of it, and the state having them as its part. But if they are an integral part of the state, then it is obvious that their social existence is already their actual participation in it. They are not only integral parts of the state, but the state is their integral part. To be consciously an integral part of something is to participate consciously in it, to be consciously integral to it. Without this consciousness the member of the state would be an animal.</p> <p>To say 'political matters of general concern' makes it appear that matters of general concern and the state are something different. But the state is the matter of general concern, thus really the matters of general concern.</p> <p>Participation in political matters of general concern and participation in the state are, therefore, identical. It is a tautology [to say] that a member of the state, a part of the state, participates in the state, and that this participation can appear only as deliberation or decision, or related forms, and thus that every member of the state shares in deliberating and deciding (if these functions are taken to be the functions of actual participation in the state) the political matters of general concern. If we are talking about actual members of the state, then this participation cannot be regarded as a 'should'; otherwise we would be talking about subjects who should be and want to be members of the state, but actually are not.</p> <p>On the other hand, if we are talking about definite concerns, about single political acts, then it is again obvious that not all as individuals accomplish them. Otherwise, the individual would be the true society, and would make society superfluous. The individual would have to do everything at once, while society would have him act for others just as it would have others act for him.</p> <p>The question whether all as individuals should share in deliberating and deciding on political matters of general concern is a question that arises from the separation of the political state and civil society.</p> <p>As we have seen, the state exists merely as political state. The totality of the political state is the legislature. To participate in the legislature is thus to participate in the political state and to prove and actualise one's existence as member of the political state, as member of the state. That all as individuals want to participate integrally in the legislature is nothing but the will of all to be actual (active) members of the state, or to give themselves a political existence, or to prove their existence as political and to effect it as such. We have further seen that the Estates are civil society as legislature, that they are its political existence. The fact, therefore, that civil society invades the sphere of legislative power en masse, and where possible totally, that actual civil society wishes to substitute itself for the fictional civil society of the legislature, is nothing but the drive of civil society to give itself political existence, or to make political existence its actual existence. The drive of civil society to transform itself into political society, or to make political society into the actual society, shows itself as the drive for the most fully possible universal participation in legislative power.</p> <p>Here, quantity is not without importance. If the augmentation of the Estates is a physical and intellectual augmentation of one of the hostile forces - and we have seen that the various elements of the legislature oppose one another as hostile forces - then the question of whether all as individuals are members of the legislature or whether they should enter the legislature through deputies is the placing in question of the representative principle within the representative principle, i.e., within that fundamental conception of the political state which exists in constitutional monarchy. (1) The notion that the legislature is the totality of the political state is a notion of the abstraction of the political state. Because this one act is the sole political act of civil society, all should participate and want to participate in it at once. (2) All as individuals. In the Estates, legislative activity is not regarded as social, as a function of society, but rather as the act wherein the individuals first assume an actually and consciously social function, that is, a political function. Here the legislature is no derivative, no function of society, but simply its formation. This formation into a legislative power requires that all members of civil society regard themselves as individuals, that they actually face one another as individuals. The abstraction of 'being a member of the state' is their 'abstract definition', a definition that is not actualised in the actuality of their life.</p> <p>There are two possibilities here: either the separation of the political state and civil society actually obtains, or civil society is actual political society. In the first case, it is impossible that all as individuals participate in the legislature, for the political state is an existent which is separated from civil society. On the one hand, civil society would abandon itself as such if all [its members] were legislators; on the other hand, the political state which stands over against it can tolerate it only if it has a form suitable to the standards of the state. In other words, the participation of civil society in the political state through deputies is precisely the expression of their separation and merely dualistic unity.</p> <p>Given the second case, i.e., that civil society is actual political society, it is nonsense to make a claim which has resulted precisely from a notion of the political state as an existent separated from civil society, from the theological notion of the political state. In this situation, legislative power altogether loses the meaning of representative power. Here, the legislature is a representation in the same sense in which every function is representative. For example, the shoemaker is my representative in so far as he fulfils a social need, just as every definite social activity, because it is a species-activity, represents only the species; that is to say, it represents a determination of my own essence the way every man is the representative of the other. Here, he is representative not by virtue of something other than himself which he represents, but by virtue of what he is and does.</p> <p>Legislative power is sought not for the sake of its content, but for the sake of its formal political significance. For example, executive power, in and for itself, has to be the object of popular desire much more than legislative power, which is the metaphysical political function. The legislative function is the will, not in its practical but in its theoretical energy. Here, the will should not pre-empt the law; rather, the actual law is to be discovered and formulated.</p> <p>Out of this divided nature of the legislature - i.e., its nature as actual lawgiving function and at the same time representative, abstract-political function - stems a peculiarity which is especially prevalent in France, the land of political culture.</p> <p>(We always find two things in the executive: the actual deed and the state's reason for this deed, as another actual consciousness, which in its total organisation is the bureaucracy.)</p> <p>The actual content of legislative power (so long as the prevailing special interests do not come into significant conflict with the objectum quaestionis) is treated very much à part, as a matter of secondary importance.</p> <p>A question attracts particular attention only when it becomes political, that is to say, either when it can be tied to a ministerial question, and thus becomes a question of the power of the legislature over the executive, or when it is a matter of rights in general, which are connected with the political formalism. How come this phenomenon? Because the legislature is at the same time the representation of civil society's political existence; because in general the political nature of a question consists in its relationship to the various powers of the political state; and finally, because the legislature represents political consciousness, which can manifest itself as political only in conflict with the executive. There is the essential demand that every social need, law, etc., be investigated and identified politically, that is to say, determined by the whole of the state in its social sense. But in the abstract political state this essential demand takes a new turn; specifically, it is given a formal change of expression in the direction of another power (content) besides its actual content. This is no abstraction of the French, but rather the inevitable consequence of the actual state's existing merely as the political state formalism examined above. The opposition within the representative power is the kat exohin political existence of the representative power. Within this representative constitution, however, the question under investigation takes a form other than that in which Hegel considered it. It is not a question of whether civil society should exercise legislative power through deputies or through all as individuals. Rather, it is a question of the extension and greatest possible universalisation of voting, of active as well as passive suffrage. This is the real point of dispute in the matter of political reform, in France as well as in England.</p> <p>Voting is not considered philosophically, that is, not in terms of its proper nature, if it is considered in relation to the crown or the executive. The vote is the actual relation of actual civil society to the civil society of the legislature, to the representative element. In other words, the vote is the immediate, the direct, the existing and not simply imagined relation of civil society to the political state. It therefore goes without saying that the vote is the chief political interest of actual civil society. In unrestricted suffrage, both active and passive, civil society has actually raised itself for the first time to an abstraction of itself, to political existence as its true universal and essential existence. But the full achievement of this abstraction is at once also the transcendence [Aufhebung] of the abstraction. In actually establishing its political existence as its true existence civil society has simultaneously established its civil existence, in distinction from its political existence, as inessential. And with the one separated, the other, its opposite, falls. Within the abstract political state the reform of voting advances the dissolution [Auflösung] of this political state, but also the dissolution of civil society.</p> <p>We will encounter the question of the reform of voting later under another aspect, namely, from the point of view of the interests. We will also discuss later the other conflicts which arise from the two-fold character of the legislature (being at one time the delegate, mandatory of civil society, at another time on the contrary primarily the political existence of civil society and a specific existent within the political formalism of the state).</p> <p>In the meantime we return to the Remark to § 308.</p> <p>The rational consideration of a topic, the consciousness of the Idea, is concrete and to that extent coincides with a genuine practical sense. The concrete state is the whole, articulated into its particular groups. The member of a state is a member of such a group, i.e., of a social class, and it is only as characterised in this objective way that he comes under consideration when we are dealing with the state.</p> <p>We have already said all that is required concerning this.</p> <p>His (the member of a state's), mere character as universal implies that he is at one and the same time both a private person and also a thinking consciousness, a will which wills the universal. This consciousness and will, however, lose their emptiness and acquire a content and a living actuality only when they are filled with particularity, and particularity means determinacy as particular and a particular class status; or, to put the matter otherwise, abstract individuality is a generic essence, but has its immanent universal actuality as the generic essence next higher in the scale.</p> <p>Everything Hegel says is correct, with the restriction</p> <p>1. that he assumes particular class status and determinacy as particular to be identical,</p> <p>2. that this determinacy, the species, the generic essence next higher in the scale must also actually, not only implicitly but explicitly, be established as the species or specification of the universal generic essence.</p> <p>But in the state, which he demonstrates to be the self-conscious existence of the moral spirit, Hegel tacitly accepts this moral spirit's being the determining thing only implicitly, that is, in accordance with the universal Idea. He does not allow society to become the actually determining thing, because for that an actual subject is required, and he has only an abstract, imaginary subject.</p> <p>§ 309. Since deputies are elected to deliberate and decide on public affairs, the point about their election is that it is a choice of individuals on the strength of confidence felt in them, i.e., a choice of such individuals as have a better understanding of these affairs than their electors have and such also as essentially vindicate the universal interest, not the particular interest of a society or a Corporation in preference to that interest. Hence their relation to their electors is ,,or that of agents with a commission or specific instructions. A further bar to their being so is the fact that their assembly is meant to be a living body in which all members deliberate in common and reciprocally instruct and convince each other.</p> <p>1. The deputies are supposed to be something other than agents with a commission or specific instructions, for they are supposed to be such as essentially vindicate the universal interest, not the particular interest of a society or a Corporation in preference to that interest. Hegel has constructed the representatives primarily as representatives of the Corporations etc., in order subsequently to reintroduce the other political determination, namely, that they are not to vindicate the particular interest of the Corporation etc. With that he abolishes his own determination, for he completely separates [the representatives], in their essential character as representatives, from their Corporation-existence. In so doing he also separates the Corporation from itself in its actual content, for it is supposed to vote not from its own point of view but from the state's point of view; that is to say, it is supposed to vote in its non-existence as Corporation. Hegel thus acknowledges the material actuality of the thing he formally converts into its opposite, namely, the abstraction of civil society from itself in its political act; and its political existence is nothing but this abstraction. Hegel gives as reason that the representatives are elected precisely to the activity of public affairs; but the Corporations are not instances of public affairs.</p> <p>2. The point about their election is supposed to be that it is a choice of individuals on the strength of confidence felt in them, i.e., a choice of such individuals as have a better understanding of these affairs than their electors have; from which, once again, it is supposed to follow that the relationship which the deputies have to their electors is not that of agents.</p> <p>Only by means of a sophism can Hegel declare that these individuals understand these affairs 'better' and not 'simply'., This conclusion [namely, that they understand these affairs better] could be drawn only if the electors had the option of deliberating and deciding themselves about public affairs or of delegating definite individuals to discharge these things, i.e., precisely if deputation, or representation, did not belong essentially to the character of civil society's legislature. But in the state constructed by Hegel, deputation, or representation, constitutes precisely the legislature's specific essence, precisely as realised.</p> <p>This example is characteristic [of the way] Hegel proposes the thing half intentionally, and imputes to it in its narrow form the sense opposed to this narrowness.</p> <p>Hegel gives the proper reason last. The deputies of civil society constitute themselves into an assembly, and only this assembly is the actual political existence and will of civil society. The separation of the political state from civil society appears as the separation of the deputies from their mandators. From itself, society delegates to its political existence only the elements.</p> <p>The contradiction appears two-fold:</p> <p>1. Formal. The delegates of civil society are a society whose members are connected by the form of instruction or commission with those who commission them. They are formally commissioned, but once they are actual they are no longer commissioned. They are supposed to be delegates, and they are not.</p> <p>2. Material. [This is] in regard to the interests. We will come back to this point later. Here, we find the opposite of the formal contradiction. The delegates are commissioned to be representatives of public affairs, but they really represent particular affairs.</p> <p>What is significant is that Hegel here designates trust as the substance of election, as the substantial relation between electors and deputies. Trust is a personal relationship. Concerning this, it says further in the Addition to § 309:</p> <p>Representation is grounded on trust, but trusting another is something different from giving my vote myself in my own personal capacity. Hence majority voting runs counter to the principle that I should be personally present in anything which is to be obligatory on me. We have confidence in a man when we take him to be a man of discretion who will manage our affairs conscientiously and to the best of his knowledge, just as if they were his own.</p> <p>§310. The guarantee that deputies will have the qualifications and disposition that accord with this end - since independent means attains its right in the first section of the Estates - is to be found so far as the second section is concerned - the section drawn from the fluctuating and changeable element in civil society - above all in the knowledge of the organisation and interests of the state and civil society, the temperament, and the skill which a deputy acquires as a result of the actual transaction of business in managerial or official positions, and then evinces in his actions. As a result, he also acquires and develops a managerial and political sense, tested by his experience, and this is a further guarantee of his suitability as a deputy.</p> <p>First, the Upper Chamber, that of independent private property, was constructed for the sake of the Crown and the executive as a guarantee against the disposition of the Lower Chamber as the political existence of empirical universality; and now Hegel further requires a new guarantee which is supposed to guarantee the disposition of the Lower Chamber itself.</p> <p>First, trust, the guarantee of the elector, was the guarantee of the deputy. Now this trust itself further requires the guarantee of the deputy's ability.</p> <p>Hegel would rather have liked to make the Lower Chamber one of pensioned civil servants. He requires of the deputy not only political sense but also managerial, bureaucratic sense.</p> <p>What he really wants here is that the legislature be the real governing power. He expresses this such that he twice requires the bureaucracy, once as representation of the Crown, at another time as representative of the people.</p> <p>Even if officials are allowed to be deputies in constitutional states, this is only because there is on the whole an abstraction from class, from the civil quality, and the abstraction of state citizenship predominates.</p> <p>With this Hegel forgets that he allowed representation to proceed from the Corporations, and that the executive directly opposes these. In this forgetfulness, which persists likewise in the following paragraph, he goes so far that he creates an essential distinction between the deputies of the Corporations and those of the classes.</p> <p>In the Remark to this paragraph it says:</p> <p>Subjective opinion, naturally enough, finds superfluous and even perhaps offensive the demand for such guarantees, if the demand is made with reference to what is called the 'people'. The state, however, is characterised by objectivity, not by a subjective opinion and its self-confidence. Hence it can recognise in individuals only their objectively recognisable and tested character, and it must be all the more careful on this point in connection with the second section of the Estates, since this section is rooted in interests and activities directed towards the particular, i.e., ill the sphere where chance, mutability, and caprice enjoy their right of free play.</p> <p>Here, Hegel's thoughtless inconsistency and managerial sense become really disgusting. At the close of the Addition to the preceding paragraph [i.e., § 309] it says:</p> <p>The electors require a guarantee that their deputy will further and secure this general interest (the task of the deputies described earlier).</p> <p>This guarantee for the electors has underhandedly evolved into a guarantee against the electors, against their self-confidence. in the Estates, empirical universality was supposed to come to the moment of subjective formal freedom. Public consciousness was supposed to come to existence in that moment as the empirical universality of the opinions and thoughts of the Many. (§ 301.)</p> <p>Now these opinions and thoughts must give proof beforehand to the executive that they are its opinions and thoughts. Unfortunately, Hegel here speaks of the state as a finished existence, although he is precisely now in the process of finishing the construction of the state within the Estates. He speaks of the state as a concrete subject which does not take offence at subjective opinion and its self-confidence, and for which the individuals have first made themselves recognisable and tested. The only thing he still lacks is a requirement that the Estates take an examination in the presence of the honourable executive. Here, Hegel goes almost to the point of servility. It is evident that he is thoroughly infected with the miserable arrogance of the world of Prussian officialdom which, distinguished in its bureaucratic narrow-mindedness, looks down on the self-confidence of the subjective opinion of the people regarding itself. Here, the state is at all times for Hegel identical with the Executive.</p> <p>To be sure, in a real state mere trust or subjective opinion cannot suffice. But in the state which Hegel constructs the political sentiment of civil society is mere opinion precisely because its political existence is an abstraction from its actual existence, precisely because the state as a whole is not the objectification of the political sentiment. Had Hegel wished to be consistent, he would have bad to work much harder to construct the Estates in conformity with their essential definition (§ 3oi) as the explicit existence of public affairs in the thought etc. of the Many, and thus nothing less than fully independent of the other presuppositions of the political state.</p> <p>Just as Hegel earlier called the presupposing of bad will in the executive etc. the view of the rabble, so just as much and even more is it the view of the rabble to presuppose bad will in the people. Hegel has no right to find it either superfluous or offensive when, among [the doctrines of] the theorists he scorns, guarantees are demanded in reference to what is called the state, the soi-disant state, the executive, when guarantees are demanded that the sentiment of the bureaucracy be the sentiment of the state.</p> <p>§ 311. A further point about the election of deputies is that, since civil society is the electorate, the deputies should themselves be conversant with and participate in its special needs, difficulties, and particular interests. Owing to the nature of civil society, its deputies are the deputies of the various Corporations (see § 308), and this simple mode of appointment obviates any confusion due to conceiving the electorate abstractly and as an agglomeration of atoms. Hence the deputies eo ipso adopt the point of view of society, and their actual election is therefore either something wholly superfluous or else reduced to a trivial play of opinion and caprice.</p> <p>First of all, Hegel joins the election in its determination as legislature (§§ 309, 310) to the fact that civil society is the electorate, i. e., he joins the legislature to its representative character, through a simple 'further'. And just as thoughtlessly he expresses the enormous contradictions which lie in this 'further'.</p> <p>* According to § 309 the deputies should essentially vindicate the universal interest, not the particular interest of a society or a Corporation in preference to that interest.</p> <p>* According to § 311 the deputies proceed from the Corporations, represent these particular interests and needs, and avoid confusion due to abstract conceptions - as if the universal interest were not also such an abstraction, an abstraction precisely from their Corporation, etc., interests.</p> <p>* According to § 310 it is required that, as a result of the actual transaction of business etc., they have acquired and evinced a managerial and political sense. In §311 a Corporation and civil sense is required.</p> <p>* In the Addition to § 309 it says, representation is grounded on trust. According to § 311 the actual election, this realisation of trust, its manifestation and appearance, is either something wholly superfluous or else reduced to a trivial play of opinion and caprice.</p> <p>That on which representation is grounded, its essence, is thus either something wholly superfluous, etc. for representation. Thus in one breath Hegel establishes the absolute contradictions: Representation is grounded on trust, on the confidence of man in man, and it is not grounded on trust. This is simply a playing around with formalities.</p> <p>The object of the representation is not the particular interest, but rather man and his state citizenship, i.e., the universal interest. On the other hand, the particular interest is the matter of the representation, and the spirit of this interest is the spirit of the representative.</p> <p>In the Remark to this paragraph, which we examine now, these contradictions are still more glaringly carried through. At one time representation is representation of the man, at another time of the particular interest of particular matter.</p> <p>It is obviously of advantage that the deputies should include representatives of each particular main branch of society (e.g. trade, manufactures, &c., &c.) - representatives who are thoroughly conversant with it and who themselves belong to it. The idea of free unrestricted election leaves this important consideration entirely at the mercy of chance. All such branches of society, however, have equal rights of representation. Deputies are sometimes regarded as 'representatives'; but they are representatives in an organic, rational sense only if they are representatives not of individuals or a conglomeration of them, but of one of the essential spheres of society and its large-scale interests. Hence representation cannot now be taken to mean simply the substitution of one man for another; the point is rather that the interest itself is actually present in its representative, while he himself is there to represent the objective element of his own being.</p> <p>As for popular suffrage, it may be further remarked that especially in large states it leads inevitably to electoral indifference, since the casting of a single vote is of no significance where there is a multitude of electors. Even if a voting qualification is highly valued and esteemed by those who are entitled to it, they still do not enter the poring booth. Thus the result of an institution of this kind is more likely to be the opposite of what was intended; election actually falls into the power of a few, of a caucus, and so of the particular and contingent interest which is precisely what was to have been neutralised.</p> <p>Both §§ 312 and 313 are taken care of by our earlier comments, and are worth no special discussion. So we simply put them down as is:</p> <p>§ 312. Each class in the Estates (see §§ 305-8) contributes something peculiarly its own to the work of deliberation. Further, one moment in the class-element has in the sphere of politics the special function of mediation, mediation between two existing things. Hence this moment must likewise acquire a separate existence of its own. For this reason the assembly of the Estates is divided into two houses.</p> <p>O jerum!</p> <p>§ 313. This division, by providing chambers of the first and second instance, is a surer guarantee for ripeness of decision and it obviates the accidental character which a snap-division has and which a numerical majority may acquire. But the principal advantage of this arrangement is that there is less chance of the Estates being in direct opposition to the executive; or that, if the mediating element is at the same time on the side of the lower house, the weight of the lower house's opinion is all the stronger, because it appears less partisan and its opposition appears neutralised.</p> <p> <a href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/index.htm" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/index.htm</a></p></div> Hegel's Philosophy of History - Part II http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7676 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article7676 2024-12-03T12:50:00Z text/html fr Robert Paris Philosophie Hegel <p>Part II : The Greek World <br class='autobr' /> Among the Greeks we feel ourselves immediately at home, for we are in the region of Spirit ; and though the origin of the nation, as also its philological peculiarities, may be traced farther – even to India – the proper Emergence, the true Palingenesis of Spirit must be looked for in Greece first. At an earlier stage I compared the Greek world with the period of adolescence ; not, indeed, in that sense, that youth bears within it a serious, anticipative destiny, (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique88" rel="directory">000- ENGLISH - MATTER AND REVOLUTION</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot149" rel="tag">Philosophie</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><p>Part II : The Greek World</p> <p>Among the Greeks we feel ourselves immediately at home, for we are in the region of Spirit ; and though the origin of the nation, as also its philological peculiarities, may be traced farther – even to India – the proper Emergence, the true Palingenesis of Spirit must be looked for in Greece first. At an earlier stage I compared the Greek world with the period of adolescence ; not, indeed, in that sense, that youth bears within it a serious, anticipative destiny, and consequently by the very conditions of its culture urges towards an ulterior aim – presenting thus an inherently incomplete and immature form, and being then most defective when it would deem itself perfect – but in that sense, that youth does not yet present the activity of work, does not yet exert itself for a definite intelligent aim – but rather exhibits a concrete freshness of the soul's life. It appears in the sensuous, actual world, as Incarnate Spirit and Spiritualized Sense – in a Unity which owed its origin to Spirit. Greece presents to us the cheerful aspect of youthful freshness, of Spiritual vitality. It is here first that advancing Spirit makes itself the content of its volition and its knowledge ; but in such a way that State, Family, Law, Religion, are at the same time objects aimed at by individuality, while the latter is individuality only in virtue of those aims. The [full-grown] man, on the other hand, devotes his life to labor for an objective aim ; which he pursues consistently, even at the cost of his individuality.</p> <p>The highest form that floated before Greek imagination was Achilles, the Son of the Poet, the Homeric Youth of the Trojan War. Homer is the element in which the Greek world lives, as man does in the air. The Greek life is a truly youthful achievement. Achilles, the ideal youth, of poetry, commenced it : Alexander the Great, the ideal youth of reality, concluded it. Both appear in contest with Asia. Achilles, as the principal figure in the national expedition of the Greeks against Troy, does not stand at its head, but is subject to the Chief of Chiefs ; he cannot be made the leader without becoming a fantastic untenable conception. On the contrary, the second youth, Alexander – the freest and finest individuality that the real world has ever produced – advances to the head of this youthful life that has now perfected itself, and accomplishes the revenge against Asia. We have, then, to distinguish three periods in Greek history : the first, that of the growth of real Individuality ; the second, that of its independence and prosperity in external conquest (through contact with the previous World-historical people) ; and the third, the period of its decline and fall, in its encounter with the succeeding organ of World-History. The period from its origin to its internal completeness (that which enables a people to make head against its predecessor) includes its primary culture. If the nation has a basis – such as the Greek world has in the Oriental – a foreign culture enters as an element into its primary condition, and it has a double culture, one original, the other of foreign suggestion. The uniting of these two elements constitutes its training ; and the first period ends with the combination of its forces to produce its real and proper vigor, which then turns against the very element that had been its basis. The second period is that of victory and prosperity. But while the nation directs its energies outwards, it becomes unfaithful to its principles at home, and internal dissension follows upon the ceasing of the external excitement. In Art and Science, too, this shows itself in the separation of the Ideal from the Real. Here is the point of decline. The third period is that of ruin, through contact with the nation that embodies a higher Spirit. The same process, it may be stated once for all, will meet us in the life of every world-historical people.</p> <p>Section I : The Elements of the Greek Spirit.</p> <p>Greece is [that form of] the Substantial [i.e., of Moral and Intellectual Principle], which is at the same time individual. The Universal [the Abstract], as such, is overcome ;[16] the submersion in Nature no longer exists, and consentaneously the unwieldy character of geographical relations has also vanished. The country now under consideration is a section of territory spreading itself in various forms through the sea – a multitude of islands, and a continent which itself exhibits insular features. The Peloponnesus is connected with the continent only by a narrow isthmus : the whole of Greece is indented by bays in numberless shapes. The partition into small divisions of territory is the universal characteristic, while at the same time, the relationship and connection between them is facilitated by the sea. We find here mountains, plains, valleys, and streams of limited extent : no great river, no absolute Valley-Plain presents itself ; but the ground is diversified by mountains and rivers in such a way as to allow no prominence to a single massive feature. We see no such display of physical grandeur as is exhibited in the East – no stream such as the Ganges, the Indus, etc., on whose plains a race delivered over to monotony is stimulated to no change, because its horizon always exhibits one unvarying form. On the contrary, that divided and multiform character everywhere prevails which perfectly corresponds with the varied life of Greek races and the versatility of the Greek Spirit.</p> <p>This is the elementary character of the Spirit of the Greeks, implying the origination of their culture from independent individualities ; – a condition in which individuals take their own ground, and are not, from the very beginning, patriarchally united by a bond of Nature, but realize a union through some origin of their moral life the Greeks have preserved, with grateful recollection, in a form of recognition which we may call mythological. In their mythology we have a definite record of the introduction of agriculture by Triptolemus, who was instructed by Ceres, and of the institution of marriage, etc. Prometheus, whose origin is referred to the distant Caucasus, is celebrated as having first taught men the production and the use of fire. The introduction of iron was likewise of great importance to the Greeks ; and while Homer speaks only of bronze, Æschylus calls iron “Scythian.” The introduction of the olive, of the art of spinning and weaving, and the creation of the horse by Poseidon, belong to the same category.</p> <p>More historical than these rudiments of culture is the alleged arrival of foreigners ; tradition tells us how the various states were founded by such foreigners. Thus, Athens owes its origin to Cecrops, an Egyptian, whose history, however, is involved in obscurity. The race of Deucalion, the son of Prometheus, is brought into connection with the various Greek tribes. Pelops of Phrygia, the son of Tantalus, is also mentioned ; next, Danaus, from Egypt : from him descend Acrisius, Danae, and Perseus. Pelops is said to have brought great wealth with him to the Peloponnesus, and to have acquired great respect and power there. Danaus settled in Argos. Especially important is the arrival of Cadmus, of Phoenician origin, with whom phonetic writing is said to have been introduced into Greece ; Herodotus refers it to Phoenicia, and ancient inscriptions then extant are cited to support the assertion. Cadmus, according to the legend, founded Thebes.</p> <p>We thus observe a colonization by civilized peoples, who were in advance of the Greeks in point of culture : though we cannot compare this colonization with that of the English in North America, for the latter have not been blended with the aborigines, but have dispossessed them ; whereas in the case of the settlers in Greece the adventitious and autochthonic elements were mixed together. The date assigned to the arrival of these colonists is very remote – the fourteenth and fifteenth century before Christ. Cadmus is said to have founded Thebes about 1490 B.C. – a date with which the Exodus of Moses from Egypt (1500 B.C.) nearly coincides. Amphictyon is also mentioned among the Founders of Greek institutions ; he is said to have established at Thermopylae a union between many small tribes of Hellas proper and Thessaly – a combination with which the great Amphictyonic league is said to have originated. These foreigners, then, are reputed to have established fixed centres in Greece by the erection of fortresses and the founding of royal houses. In Argolis, the walls of which the ancient fortresses consisted, were called Cyclopian ; some of them have been discovered even in recent times, since, on account of their solidity, they are indestructible.</p> <p>These walls consist partly of irregular blocks, whose interstices are filled up with small stones – partly of masses of stones carefully fitted into each other. Such walls are those of Tiryns and Mycenae. Even now the gate with the lions, at Mycenas, can be recognized by the description of Pausanias. It is stated of Prcetus, who ruled in Argos, that he brought with him from Lycia the Cyclopes who built these walls. It is, however, supposed that they were erected by the ancient Pelasgi. To the fortresses protected by such walls the princes of the heroic times generally attached their dwellings. Especially remarkable are the Treasure-houses built by them, such as the Treasure-house of Minyas at Orchomenus, and that of Atreus at Mycenas. These fortresses, then, were the nuclei of small states ; they gave a greater security to agriculture ; they protected commercial intercourse against robbery. They were, however, as Thucydides informs us, not placed in the immediate vicinity of the sea, on account of piracy ; maritime towns being of later date. Thus with those royal abodes originated the firm establishment of society. The relation of princes to subjects, and to each other, we learn best from Homer. It did not depend on a state of things established by law, but. on superiority in riches, possessions, martial accoutrements, personal bravery, pre-eminence in insight and wisdom, and lastly, on descent and ancestry ; for the princes, as heroes, were regarded as of a higher race. Their subjects obeyed them, not as distinguished from them by conditions of Caste, nor as in a state of serfdom, nor in the patriarchal relation – according to which the chief is only the head of the tribe or family to which all belong – nor yet as the result of the express necessity for a constitutional government ; but only from the need, universally felt, of being held together, and of obeying a ruler accustomed to command – without envy and ill-will towards him. The Prince has just so much personal authority as he possesses the ability to acquire and to assert ; but as this superiority is only the individually heroic, resting on personal merit, it does not continue long. Thus in Homer we see the suitors of Penelope taking possession of the property of the absent Ulysses, without showing the slightest respect to his son. Achilles, in his inquiries about his father, when Ulysses descends to Hades, indicates the supposition that, as he is old, he will be no longer honored. Manners are still very simple : princes prepare their own repasts ; and Ulysses labors at the construction of his own house. In Homer's Iliad we find a King of Kings, a generalissimo in the great national undertaking – but the other magnates environ him as a freely deliberating council ; the prince is honored, but he is obliged to arrange everything to the satisfaction of the others ; he indulges in violent conduct towards Achilles, but, in revenge, the latter withdraws from the struggle. Equally lax is the relation of the several chiefs to the people at large, among whom there are always individuals who claim attention and respect. The various peoples do not fight as mercenaries of the prince in his battles, nor as a stupid serf-like herd driven to the contest, nor yet in their own interest ; but as the companions of their honored chieftain – as witnesses of his exploits, and his defenders in peril. A perfect resemblance to these relations is also presented in the Greek Pantheon. Zeus is the Father of the Gods, but each one of them has his own will ; Zeus respects them, and they him : he may sometimes scold and threaten them, and they then allow his will to prevail or retreat grumbling ; but they do not permit matters to come to an extremity, and Zeus so arranges matters on the whole – by making this concession to one, that to another – as to produce satisfaction. In the terrestrial, as well as in the Olympian world, there is, therefore, only a lax bond of unity maintained ; royalty has not yet become monarchy, for it is only in a more extensive society that the need of the latter is felt.</p> <p>While this state of things prevailed, and social relations were such as have been described, that striking and great event took place – the union of the whole of Greece in a national undertaking, viz., the Trojan War ; with which began that more extensive connection, with Asia which had very important results for the Greeks. (The expedition of Jason to Colchis – also mentioned by the poets – and which bears an earlier date, was, as compared with the war of Troy, a very limited and isolated undertaking.) The occasion of that united expedition is said to have been the violation of the laws of hospitality by the son of an Asiatic prince, in carrying off the wife of his host. Agamemnon assembles the princes of Greece through the power and influence which he possesses. Thucydides ascribes his authority to his hereditary sovereignty, combined with naval power (Hom. II. ii. 108), in which he was far superior to the rest. It appears, however, that the combination was effected without external compulsion, and that the whole armament was convened simply on the strength of individual consent. The Hellenes were then brought to act unitedly, to an extent of which there is no subsequent example. The result of their exertions was the conquest and destruction of Troy, though they had no design of making it a permanent possession. No external result, therefore, in the way of settlement ensued, any more than an enduring political union, as the effect of the uniting of the nation in the accomplishment of this single achievement. But the poet supplied an imperishable portraiture of their youth and of their national spirit, to the imagination of the Greek people ; and the picture of this beautiful human heroism hovered as a directing ideal before their whole development and culture. So likewise, in the Middle Ages, we see the whole of Christendom united to attain one object – the conquest of the Holy Sepulchre ; but, in spite of all the victories achieved, with just as little permanent result. The Crusades are the Trojan War of newly awakened Christendom, waged against the simple, homogeneous clearness of Mahometanism.</p> <p>The royal houses perished, partly as the consequence of particular atrocities, partly through gradual extinction. There was no strictly moral bond connecting them with the tribes which they governed. The same relative position is occupied by the people and the royal houses in the Greek Tragedy also. The people is the Chorus – passive, deedless : the heroes perform the deeds, and incur the consequent responsibility. There is nothing in common between them ; the people have no directing power, but only appeal to the gods. Such heroic personalities as those of the princes in question, are so remarkably suited for subjects of dramatic art on this very account – that they form their resolutions independently and individually, and are not guided by universal laws binding on every citizen ; their conduct and their ruin are individual. The people appears separated from the royal houses, and these are regarded as an alien body – a higher race, fighting out the battles and undergoing the penalties of their fate, for themselves alone. Royalty having performed that which it had to perform, thereby rendered itself superfluous. The several dynasties are the agents of their own destruction, or perish not as the result of animosity, or of struggles on the side of the people : rather the families of the sovereigns are left in calm enjoyment of their power – a proof that the democratic government which followed is not regarded as something absolutely diverse. How sharply do the annals of other times contrast with this !</p> <p>This fall of the royal houses occurs after the Trojan war, and many changes now present themselves. The Peloponnesus was conquered by the Heraclidae, who introduced a calmer state of things, which was not again interrupted by the incessant migrations of races. The history now becomes more obscure ; and though the several occurrences of the Trojan war are very circumstantially described to us, we are uncertain respecting the important transactions of the time immediately following, for a space of many centuries. No united undertaking distinguishes them, unless we regard as such that of which Thucydides speaks, viz., the war between the Chalcidians and Eretrians in Euboea, in which many nations took part. The towns vegetate in isolation, or at most distinguish themselves by war with their neighbors. Yet, they enjoy prosperity in this isolated condition, by means of trade ; a kind of progress to which their being rent by many party-struggles offers no opposition. In the same way, we observe in the Middle Ages the towns of Italy – which, both internally and externally, were engaged in continual struggle – attaining so high a degree of prosperity. The flourishing state of the Greek towns at that time is proved, according to Thucydides, also by the colonies sent out in every direction. Thus, Athens colonized Ionia and several islands ; and colonies from the Peloponnesus settled in Italy and Sicily. Colonies, on the other hand, became relatively mother states ; e.g., Miletus, which founded many cities on the Propontis and the Black Sea. This sending out of colonies – especially during the period between the Trojan war and Cyrus – presents us with a remarkable phenomenon. It can be thus explained. In the several towns the people had the governmental power in their hands, since they gave the final decision in political affairs. In consequence of the long repose enjoyed by them, the population and the development of the community advanced rapidly ; and the immediate result was the amassing of great riches, contemporaneously with which fact great want and poverty make their appearance. Industry, in our sense, did not exist ; and the lands were soon occupied. Nevertheless a part of the poorer classes would not submit to the degradations of poverty, for everyone felt himself a free citizen. The only expedient, therefore, that remained, was colonization. In another country, those who suffered distress in their own, might seek a free soil, and gain a living as free citizens by its cultivation. Colonization thus became a means of maintaining some degree of equality among the citizens ; but this means is only a palliative, and the original inequality, founded on the difference of property, immediately reappears. The old passions were rekindled with fresh violence, and riches were soon made use of for securing power : thus “Tyrants” gained ascendancy in the cities of Greece. Thucydides says, “When Greece increased in riches, Tyrants arose in the cities, and the Greeks devoted themselves more zealously to the sea.” At the time of Cyrus, the History of Greece acquires its peculiar interest ; we see the various states now displaying their particular character. This is the date, too, of the formation of the distinct Greek Spirit. Religion and political institutions are developed with it, and it is these important phases of national life which must now occupy our attention.</p> <p>In tracing up the rudiments of Greek culture, we first recall attention to the fact that the physical condition of the country does not exhibit such a characteristic unity, such a uniform mass, as to exercise a powerful influence over the inhabitants. On the contrary, it is diversified, and produces no decided impression. Nor have we here the unwieldy unity of a family or national combination ; but, in the presence of scenery and displays of elemental power broken up into fragmentary forms, men's attention is more largely directed to themselves, and to the extension of their immature capabilities. Thus we see the Greeks – divided and separated from each other – thrown back upon their inner spirit and personal energy, yet at the same time most variously excited and cautiously circumspect. We behold them quite undetermined and irresolute in the presence of Nature, dependent on its contingencies, and listening anxiously to each signal from the external world ; but, on the other hand, intelligently taking cognizance of and appropriating that outward existence, and showing boldness and independent vigor in contending with it. These are the simple elements of their culture and religion. In tracing up their mythological conceptions, we find natural objects forming the basis – not en masse, however ; only in dissevered forms. The Diana of Ephesus (that is, Nature as the universal Mother), the Cybele and Astarte of Syria – such comprehensive conceptions remained Asiatic, and were not transmitted to Greece. For the Greeks only watch the objects of Nature, and form surmises respecting them ; inquiring, in the depth of their souls, for the hidden meaning. According to Aristotle's dictum, that Philosophy proceeds from Wonder, the Greek view of Nature also proceeds from wonder of this kind.</p> <p>Not that in their experience, Spirit meets something extraordinary, which it compares with the common order of things ; for the intelligent view of a regular course of Nature, and the reference of phenomena to that standard, do not yet present themselves ; but the Greek Spirit was excited to wonder at the Natural in Nature. It does not maintain the position of stupid indifference to it as something existing, and there an end of it ; but regards it as something in the first instance foreign, in which, however, it has a presentiment of confidence, and the belief that it bears something within it which is friendly to the human Spirit, and which it may be permitted to sustain a positive relation. This Wonder, and this Presentiment, are here the fundamental categories ; though the Hellenes did not content themselves with these moods of feelings, but projected the hidden meaning, which was the subject of the surmise, into a distinct conception as an object of consciousness. The Natural holds its place in their minds only after undergoing some transformation by Spirit – not immediately. Man regards Nature only as an excitement to his faculties, and only the Spiritual which he has evolved from it can have any influence over him. Nor is this commencement of the Spiritual apprehension of Nature to be regarded as an explanation suggested by us ; it meets us in a multitude of conceptions formed by the Greeks themselves. The position of curious surmise, of attentive eagerness to catch the meaning of Nature, is indicated to us in the comprehensive idea of Pan. To the Greeks Pan did not represent the objective Whole, but that indefinite neutral ground which involves the element of the subjective ; he embodies that thrill which pervades us in the silence of the forests ; he was, therefore, especially worshipped in sylvan Arcadia : (a “panic terror” is the common expression for a groundless fright). Pan, this thrill-exciting being, is also represented as playing on the flute ; we have not the bare internal presentiment, for Pan makes himself audible on the seven-reeded pipe. In what has been stated we have, on the one hand, the Indefinite, which, however, holds communication with man ; on the other hand the fact, that such communication is only a subjective imagining – an explanation furnished by the percipient himself. On the same principle the Greeks listened to the murmuring of the fountains, and asked what might be thereby signified ; but the signification which they were led to attach to it was not the objective meaning of the fountain, but the subjective – that of the subject itself, which further exalts the Naiad to a Muse. The Naiads, or Fountains, are the external, objective origin of the Muses. Yet the immortal songs of the Muses are not that which is heard in the murmuring of the fountains ; they are the productions of the thoughtfully listening Spirit – creative while observant. The interpretation and explanation of Nature and its transformations – the indication of their sense and import – is the act of the subjective Spirit ; and to this the Greeks attached the name manteia. The general idea which this embodies, is the form in which man realizes his relationship to Nature. Manteia has reference both to the matter of the exposition and to the expounder who divines the weighty import in question. Plato speaks of it in reference to dreams, and to that delirium into which men fall during sickness ; an interpreter, mantis, is wanted to explain these dreams and this delirium. That Nature answered the questions which the Greek put to her, is in this converse sense true, that he obtained an answer to the questions of Nature from his own Spirit. The insight of the Seer becomes thereby purely poetical ; Spirit supplies the signification which the natural image expresses. Everywhere the Greeks desired a clear presentation and interpretation of the Natural. Homer tells us, in the last book of the Odyssey, that while the Greeks were overwhelmed with sorrow for Achilles, a violent agitation came over the sea : the Greeks were on the point of dispersing in terror, when the experienced Nestor arose and interpreted the phenomenon to them. Thetis, he said, was coming, with her nymphs, to lament for the death of her son. When a pestilence broke out in the camp of the Greeks, the Priest Calchas explained that Apollo was incensed at their not having restored the daughter of his priest Chryses when a ransom had been offered. The Oracle was originally interpreted exactly in this way. The oldest Oracle was at Dodona (in the district of the modern Janina). Herodotus says that the first priestesses of the temple there, were from Egypt ; yet this temple is stated to be an ancient Greek one. The rustling of the leaves of the sacred oaks was the form of prognostication there. Bowls of metal were also suspended in the grove. But the sounds of the bowls dashing against each other were quite indefinite, and had no objective sense ; the sense – the signification – was imparted to the sounds only by the human beings who heard them. Thus also the Delphic priestesses, in a senseless, distracted state – in the intoxication of enthusiasm (mantia) – uttered unintelligible sounds ; and it was the manteis who gave to these utterances a definite meaning. In the cave of Trophonius the noise of subterranean waters was heard, and apparitions were seen : but these indefinite phenomena acquired a meaning only through the interpreting, comprehending Spirit. It must also be observed, that these excitements of Spirit are in the first instance external, natural impulses. Succeeding them are internal changes taking place in the human being himself – such as dreams, or the delirium of the Delphic priestess – which require to be made intelligible by the mantis. At the commencement of the Iliad, Achilles is excited against Agamemnon, and is on the point of drawing his sword ; but on a sudden he checks the movement of his arm, and recollects himself in his wrath, reflecting on his relation to Agamemnon. The Poet explains this by saying that it was Pallas-Athene (Wisdom or Consideration) that restrained him. When Ulysses among the Phaeacians has thrown his discus farther than the rest, and one of the Phaeacians shows a friendly disposition towards him, the Poet recognizes in him Pallas-Athene. Such an explanation denotes the perception of the inner meaning, the sense, the underlying truth ; and the poets were in this way the teachers of the Greeks – especially Homer. Manteia in fact is Poesy – not a capricious indulgence of fancy, but an imagination which introduces the Spiritual into the Natural – in short a richly intelligent perception. The Greek Spirit, on the whole, therefore, is free from superstition, since it changes the sensuous into the sensible – the Intellectual – so that [oracular] decisions are derived from Spirit ; although superstition comes in again from another quarter, as will be observed when impulsions from another source than the Spiritual, are allowed to tell upon opinion and action.</p> <p>But the stimuli that operated on the Spirit of the Greeks are not to be limited to these objective and subjective excitements. The traditional element derived from foreign countries, the culture, the divinities and ritual observances transmitted to them ab extra must also be included. It has been long a much vexed question whether the arts and the religion of the Greeks were developed independently or through foreign suggestion. Under the conduct of a one-sided understanding the controversy is interminable ; for it is no less a fact of history that the Greeks derived conceptions from India, Syria, and Egypt, than that the Greek conceptions are peculiar to themselves, and those others alien. Herodotus (II. 53) asserts, with equal decision, that “Homer and Hesiod invented a Theogony for the Greeks, and assigned to the gods their appropriate epithets” (a most weighty sentence, which has been the subject of deep investigation, especially by Creuzer) – and, in another place, that Greece took the names of its divinities from Egypt, and that the Greeks made inquiry at Dodona, whether they ought to adopt these names or not. This appears selfcontradictory : it is, however, quite consistent ; for the fact is that the Greeks evolved the Spiritual from the materials which they had received. The Natural, as explained by man – i.e., its internal essential element – is, as a universal principle, the beginning of the Divine. Just as in Art the Greeks may have acquired a mastery of technical matters from others – from the Egyptians especially – so in their religion the commencement might have been from without ; but by their independent spirit they transformed the one as well as the other.</p> <p>Traces of such foreign rudiments may be generally discovered (Creuzer, in his “Symbolik,” dwells especially on this point). The amours of Zeus appear indeed as something isolated, extraneous, adventitious, but it may be shown that foreign theogonic representations form their basis. Hercules is, among the Hellenes, that Spiritual Humanity which by native energy attains Olympus through the twelve far-famed labors : but the foreign idea that lies at the basis is the Sun, completing its revolution through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The Mysteries were only such ancient rudiments, and certainly contained no greater wisdom than already existed in the consciousness of the Greeks. All Athenians were initiated in the mysteries – Socrates excepted, who refused initiation, because he knew well that science and art are not the product of mysteries, and that Wisdom never lies among arcana. True science has its place much rather in the open field of consciousness.</p> <p>In summing up the constituents of the Greek Spirit, we find its fundamental characteristic to be, that the freedom of Spirit is conditioned by and has an essential relation to some stimulus supplied by Nature. Greek freedom of thought is excited by an alien existence ; but it is free because it transforms and virtually reproduces the stimulus by its own operation. This phase of Spirit is the medium between the loss of individuality on the part of man (such as we observe in the Asiatic principle, in which the Spiritual and Divine exists only under a Natural form), and Infinite Subjectivity as pure certainty of itself – the position that the Ego is the ground of all that can lay claim to substantial existence. The Greek Spirit as the medium between these two, begins with Nature, but transforms it into a mere objective form of its (Spirit's) own existence ; Spirituality is therefore not yet absolutely free ; not yet absolutely self-produced – is not self-stimulation. Setting out from surmise and wonder, the Greek Spirit advances to definite conceptions of the hidden meanings of Nature. In the subject itself too, the same harmony is produced. In Man, the side of his subjective existence which he owes to Nature, is the Heart, the Disposition, Passion, and Variety of Temperament : this side is then developed in a spiritual direction to free Individuality ; so that the character is not placed in a relation to universally valid moral authorities, assuming the form of duties, but the Moral appears as a nature peculiar to the individual – an exertion of will, the result of disposition and individual constitution. This stamps the Greek character as that of Individuality conditioned by Beauty, which is produced by Spirit, transforming the merely Natural into an expression of its own being. The activity of Spirit does not yet possess in itself the material and organ of expression, but needs the excitement of Nature and the matter which Nature supplies : it is not free, self-determining Spirituality, but mere naturalness formed to Spirituality – Spiritual Individuality. The Greek Spirit is the plastic artist, forming the stone into a work of art. In this formative process the stone does not remain mere stone – the form being only superinduced from without ; but it is made an expression of the Spiritual, even contrary to its nature, and thus transformed. Conversely, the artist needs for his spiritual conceptions, stone, colors, sensuous forms to express his idea. Without such an element he can no more be conscious of the idea himself, than give it an objective form for the contemplation of others ; since it cannot in Thought alone become an object to him. The Egyptian Spirit also was a similar laborer in Matter, but the Natural had not yet been subjected to the Spiritual. No advance was made beyond a struggle and contest with it ; the Natural still took an independent position, and formed one side of the image, as in the body of the Sphinx. In Greek Beauty the Sensuous is only a sign, an expression, an envelope, in which Spirit manifests itself.</p> <p>It must be added, that while the Greek Spirit is a transforming artist of this kind, it knows itself free in its productions ; for it is their creator, and they are what is called the “work of man.” They are, however, not merely this, but Eternal Truth – the energizing of Spirit in its innate essence, and quite as really not created as created by man. He has a respect and veneration for these conceptions and images – this Olympian Zeus – this Pallas of the Acropolis – and in the same way for the laws, political and ethical, that guide his actions. But He, the human being, is the womb that conceived them, he the breast that suckled them, he the Spiritual to which their grandeur and purity are owing. Thus he feels himself calm in contemplating them, and not only free in himself, but possessing the consciousness of his freedom ; thus the honor of the Human is swallowed up in the worship of the Divine. Men honor the Divine in and for itself, but at the same time as their deed, their production, their phenomenal existence ; thus the Divine receives its honor through the respect paid to the Human, and the Human in virtue of the honor paid to the Divine.</p> <p>Such are the qualities of that Beautiful Individuality, which constitutes the centre of the Greek character. We must now consider the several radiations which this idea throws out in realizing itself. All issue in works of art, and we may arrange under three heads : the subjective work of art, that is, the culture of the man himself ; – the objective work of art, i.e., the shaping of the world of divinities ; – lastly, the political work of art – the form of the Constitution, and the relations of the Individuals who compose it.</p> <p>Section II : Phases of Individuality Æsthetically Conditioned</p> <p>Chapter I. – The Subjective Work of Art</p> <p>Man with his necessities sustains a practical relation to external Nature, and in making it satisfy his desires, and thus using it up, has recourse to a system of means. For natural objects are powerful, and offer resistance in various ways. In order to subdue them, man introduces other natural agents ; thus turns Nature against itself, and invents instruments for this purpose. These human inventions belong to Spirit, and such an instrument is to be respected more than a mere natural object. We see, too, that the Greeks are accustomed to set an especial value upon them, for in Homer, man's delight in them appears in a very striking way. In the notice of Agamemnon's sceptre, its origin is given in detail : mention is made of doors which turn on hinges, and of accoutrements and furniture, in a way that expresses satisfaction. The honor of human invention in subjugating Nature is ascribed to the gods. But, on the other hand, man uses Nature for ornament, which is intended only as a token of wealth and of that which man has made of himself. We find Ornament, in this interest, already very much developed among the Homeric Greeks. It is true that both barbarians and civilized nations ornament themselves ; but barbarians content themselves with mere ornament ; they intend their persons to please by an external addition. But ornament by its very nature is destined only to beautify something other than itself, viz. the human body, which is man's immediate environment, and which, in common with Nature at large, he has to transform. The spiritual interest of Primary importance is, therefore, the development of the body to a perfect organ for the Will – an adaptation which may on the one hand itself be the means for ulterior objects, and on the other hand, appear as an object per se. Among the Greeks, then, we find this boundless impulse of individuals to display themselves, and to find their enjoyment in so doing. Sensuous enjoyment does not become the basis of their condition when a state of repose has been obtained, any more than the dependence and stupor of superstition which enjoyment entails. They are too powerfully excited, too much bent upon developing their individuality, absolutely to adore Nature, as it manifests itself in its aspects of power and beneficence. That peaceful condition which ensued when a predatory life had been relinquished, and liberal nature had afforded security and leisure, turned their energies in the direction of self-assertion – the effort to dignify themselves. But while on the one side they have too much independent personality to be subjugated by superstition, that sentiment has not gone to the extent of making them vain ; on the contrary, essential conditions must be first satisfied, before this can become a matter of vanity with them. The exhilarating sense of personality, in contrast with sensuous subjection to nature, and the need, not of mere pleasure, but of the display of individual powers, in order thereby to gain special distinction and consequent enjoyment, constitute therefore the chief characteristic and principal occupation of the Greeks. Free as the bird singing in the sky, the individual only expresses what lies in his untrammelled human nature – [to give the world “assurance of a man"] – to have his importance recognized. This is the subjective beginning of Greek Art – in which the human being elaborates his physical being, in free, beautiful movement and agile vigor, to a work of art. The Greeks first trained their own persons to beautiful configurations before they attempted the expression of such in marble and in paintings. The innocuous contests of games, in which every one exhibits his powers, is of very ancient date. Homer gives a noble description of the games conducted by Achilles, in honor of Patroclus ; but in all his poems there is no notice of statues of the gods, though he mentions the sanctuary at Dodona, and the treasure-house of Apollo at Delphi. The games in Homer consist in wrestling and boxing, running, horse and chariot races, throwing the discus or javelin, and archery. With these exercises are united dance and song, to express and form part of the enjoyment of social exhilaration, and which arts likewise blossomed into beauty. On the shield of Achilles, Hephaestus represents, among other things, how beautiful youths and maidens move as quickly “with well-taught feet,” as the potter turns his wheel. The multitude stand round enjoying the spectacle ; the divine singer accompanies the song with the harp, and two chief dancers perform their evolutions in the centre of the circle.</p> <p>These games and aesthetic displays, with the pleasures and honors that accompanied them, were at the outset only private, originating in particular occasions ; but in the sequel they became an affair of the nation, and were fixed for certain times at appointed places. Besides the Olympic games in the sacred district of Elis, there were also held the Isthmian, the Pythian, and Nemean, at other places.</p> <p>If we look at the inner nature of these sports, we shall first observe how Sport itself is opposed to serious business, to dependence and need. This wrestling, running, contending was no serious affair ; bespoke no obligation of defence, no necessity of combat. Serious occupation is labor that has reference to some want. I or Nature must succumb ; if the one is to continue, the other must fall. In contrast with this kind of seriousness, however, Sport presents the higher seriousness ; for in it Nature is wrought into Spirit, and although in these contests the subject has not advanced to the highest grade of serious thought, yet in this exercise of his physical powers, man shows his Freedom, viz. that he has transformed his body to an organ of Spirit. Man has immediately in one of his organs, the Voice, an element which admits and requires a more extensive purport than the mere sensuous Present. We have seen how Song is united with the Dance, and ministers to it : but, subsequently Song makes itself independent, and requires musical instruments to accompany it ; it then ceases to be unmeaning, like the modulations of a bird, which may indeed express emotion, but which have no objective import ; but it requires an import created by imagination and Spirit, and which is then further formed into an objective work of art.</p> <p>Chapter II. – The Objective Work of Art</p> <p>If the subject of Song as thus developed among the Greeks is made a question, we should say that its essential and absolute purport is religious. We have examined the Idea embodied in the Greek Spirit ; and Religion is nothing else than this Idea made objective as the essence of being. According to that Idea, we shall observe also that the Divine involves the vis natura only as an element suffering a process of transformation to spiritual power. Of this Natural Element, as its origin, nothing more remains than the accord of analogy involved in the representation they formed of Spiritual power ; for the Greeks worshipped God as Spiritual. We cannot, therefore, regard the Greek divinity as similar to the Indian – some Power of Nature for which the human shape supplies only an outward form. The essence is the Spiritual itself, and the Natural is only the point of departure. But on the other hand, it must be observed, that the divinity of the Greeks is not yet the absolute, free Spirit, but Spirit in a particular mode, fettered by the limitations of humanity – still dependent as a determinate individuality on external conditions. Individualities, objectively beautiful, are the gods of the Greeks. The divine Spirit is here so conditioned as to be not yet regarded as abstract Spirit, but has a specialized existence – continues to manifest itself in sense ; but so that the sensuous is not its substance, but is only an element of its manifestation. This must be our leading idea in the consideration of the Greek mythology, and we must have our attention fixed upon it so much the more firmly, as – partly through the influence of erudition, which has whelmed essential principles beneath an infinite amount of details, and partly through that destructive analysis which is the work of the abstract Understanding – this mythology, together with the more ancient periods of Greek history, has become a region of the greatest intellectual confusion.</p> <p>In the Idea of the Greek Spirit we found the two elements, Nature and Spirit, in such a relation to each other, that Nature forms merely the point of departure. This degradation of Nature is in the Greek mythology the turning point of the whole – expressed as the War of the Gods, the overthrow of the Titans by the race of Zeus. The transition from the Oriental to the Occidental Spirit is therein represented, for the Titans are the merely Physical – natural existences, from whose grasp sovereignty is wrested. It is true that they continue to be venerated, but not as governing powers ; for they are relegated to the verge [the limbus] of the world. The Titans are powers of Nature, Uranus, Gaea, Oceanus, Selene, Helios, etc. Chronos expresses the dominion of abstract Time, which devours its children. The unlimited power of reproduction is restrained, and Zeus appears as the head of the new divinities, who embody a spiritual import, and are themselves Spirit.[17] It is not possible to express this transition more distinctly and naively than in this myth ; the new dynasty of divinities proclaim their peculiar nature to be of a Spiritual order.</p> <p>The second point is, that the new divinities retain natural elements, and consequently in themselves a determinate relation to the powers of Nature, as was previously shown. Zeus has his lightnings and clouds, and Hera is the creatress of the Natural, the producer of crescent vitality. Zeus is also the political god, the protector of morals and of hospitality. Oceanus, as such, is only the element of Nature which his name denotes. Poseidon has still the wildness of that element in his character ; but he is also an ethical personage ; to him is ascribed the building of walls and the production of the Horse. Helios is the sun as a natural element. This Light, according to the analogy of Spirit, has been transformed to self-consciousness, and Apollo has proceeded from Helios. The name lukeios points to the connection with light ; Apollo was a herdsman in the employ of Admetus, but oxen not subjected to the yoke were sacred to Helios : his rays, represented as arrows, kill the Python. The idea of Light as the natural power constituting the basis of the representation, cannot be dissociated from this divinity ; especially as the other predicates attached to it are easily united with it, and the explanations of Müller and others, who deny that basis, are much more arbitrary and far-fetched. For Apollo is the prophesying and discerning god – Light, that makes everything clear. He is, moreover, the healer and strengthener ; as also the destroyer, for he kills men. He is the propitiating and purifying god, e.g., in contravention of the Eumenides – the ancient subterrene divinities – who exact hard, stern justice. He himself is pure ; he has no wife, but only a sister, and is not involved in various disgusting adventures, like Zeus ; moreover, he is the discerner and declarer, the singer and leader of the dances – as the sun leads the harmonious dance of stars. – In like manner the Naiads became the Muses. The mother of the gods, Cybele – continuing to be worshipped at Ephesus as Artemis – is scarcely to be recognized as the Artemis of the Greeks – the chaste huntress and destroyer of wild beasts. Should it be said that this change of the Natural into the Spiritual is owing to our allegorizing, or that of the later Greeks, we may reply, that this transformation of the Natural to the Spiritual is the Greek Spirit itself. The epigrams of the Greeks exhibit such advances from the Sensuous to the Spiritual. But the abstract Understanding cannot comprehend this blending of the Natural with the Spiritual.</p> <p>It must be further observed, that the Greek gods are to be regarded as individualities – not abstractions, like “Knowledge,” “Unity,” “Time,” “Heaven,” “Necessity.” Such abstractions do not form the substance of these divinities ; they are no allegories, no abstract beings, to which various attributes are attached, like the Horatian “Necessitas clavis trabalibus.” As little are the divinities symbols, for a symbol is only a sign, an adumbration of something else. The Greek gods express of themselves what they are. The eternal repose and clear intelligence that dignifies the head of Apollo, is not a symbol, but the expression in which Spirit manifests itself, and shows itself present. The gods are personalities, concrete individualities : an allegorical being has no qualities, but is itself one quality and no more. The gods are, moreover, special characters, since in each of them one peculiarity predominates as the characteristic one ; but it would be vain to try to bring this circle of characters into a system. Zeus, perhaps, may be regarded as ruling the other gods, but not with substantial power ; so that they are left free to their own idiosyncrasy. Since the whole range of spiritual and moral qualities was appropriated by the gods, the unity, which stood above them all, necessarily remained abstract ; it was therefore formless and unmeaning Fact, [the absolute constitution of things] – Necessity, whose oppressive character arises from the absence of the Spiritual in it ; whereas the gods hold a friendly relation to men, for they are Spiritual natures. That higher thought, the knowledge of Unity as God – the One Spirit – lay beyond that grade of thought which the Greeks had attained.</p> <p>With regard to the adventitious and special that attaches to the Greek gods, the question arises, where the external origin of this adventitious element is to be looked for. It arises partly from local characteristics – the scattered condition of the Greeks at the commencement of their national life, fixing as this did on certain points, and consequently introducing local representations. The local divinities stand alone, and occupy a much greater extent than they do afterwards, when they enter into the circle of the divinities, and are reduced to a limited position ; they are conditioned by the particular consciousness and circumstances of the countries in which they appear. There are a multitude of Herculeses and Zeuses, that have their local history like the Indian gods, who also at different places possess temples to which a peculiar legend attaches. A similar relation occurs in the case of the Catholic saints and their legends ; though here, not the several localities, but the one “Mater Dei” supplies the point of departure, being afterwards localized in the most diversified modes. The Greeks relate the liveliest and most attractive stories of their gods – to which no limit can be assigned, since rich fancies were always gushing forth anew in the living Spirit of the Greeks. A second source from which adventitious specialities in the conception of the gods arose is that Worship of Nature, whose representations retain a place in the Greek myths, as certainly as they appear there also in a regenerated and transfigured condition. The preservation of the original myths, brings us to the famous chapter of the “Mysteries.” already mentioned. These mysteries of the Greeks present something which, as unknown, has attracted the curiosity of all times, under the supposition of profound wisdom. It must first be remarked that their antique and primary character, in virtue of its very antiquity, shows their destitution of excellence – their inferiority ; – that the more refined truths are not expressed in these mysteries, and that the view which many have entertained is incorrect, viz. – that the Unity of God, in opposition to polytheism, was taught in them. The mysteries were rather antique rituals ; and it is as unhistorical as it is foolish, to assume that profound philosophical truths are to be found here ; since, on the contrary, only natural ideas – ruder conceptions of the metamorphoses occurring everywhere in nature, and of the vital principle that pervades it – were the subjects of those mysteries. If we put together all the historical data pertinent to the question, the result we shall inevitably arrive at will be that the mysteries did not constitute a system of doctrines, but were sensuous ceremonies and exhibitions, consisting of symbols of the universal operations of Nature, as, e.g., the relation of the earth to celestial phenomena. The chief basis of the representations of Ceres and Proserpine, Bacchus and his train, was the universal principle of Nature ; and the accompanying details were obscure stories and representations, mainly bearing on the universal vital force and its metamorphoses. An analogous process to that of Nature, Spirit has also to undergo ; for it must be twice-born, i.e. abnegate itself ; and thus the representations given in the mysteries called attention, though only feebly, to the nature of Spirit. In the Greeks they produced an emotion of shuddering awe ; for an instinctive dread comes over men, when a signification is perceived in a form, which as a sensuous phenomenon does not express that signification, and which therefore both repels and attracts – awakes surmises by the import that reverberates through the whole, but at the same time a thrill of dread at the repellent form. Æschylus was accused of having profaned the mysteries in his tragedies. The indefinite representations and symbols of the Mysteries, in which the profound import is only surmised, are an element alien to the clear pure forms, and threaten them with destruction ; on which account the gods of Art remain separated from the gods of the Mysteries, and the two spheres must be strictly dissociated. Most of their gods the Greeks received from foreign lands – as Herodotus states expressly with regard to Egypt – but these exotic myths were transformed and spiritualized by the Greeks ; and that part of the foreign theogonies which accompanied them, was, in the mouth of the Hellenes, worked up into a legendary narrative which often redounded to the disadvantage of the divinities. Thus also the brutes which continued to rank as gods among the Egyptians, were degraded to external signs, accompanying the Spiritual god. While they have each an individual character, the Greek gods are also represented as human, and this anthropomorphism is charged as a defect. On the contrary (we may immediately rejoin) man as the Spiritual constitutes the element of truth in the Greek gods, which rendered them superior to all elemental deities, and all mere abstractions of the One and Highest Being. On the other side it is alleged as an advantage of the Greek gods that they are represented as men – that being regarded as not the case with the Christian God. Schiller says :</p> <p>“While the gods remained more human,</p> <p>The men were more divine.”</p> <p>But the Greek gods must not be regarded as more human than the Christian God. Christ is much more a Man : he lives, dies – suffers death on the cross – which is infinitely more human than the humanity of the Greek Idea of the Beautiful. But in referring to this common element of the Greek and the Christian religions, it must be said of both, that if a manifestation of God is to be supposed at all, his natural form must be that of Spirit, which for sensuous conception is essentially the human ; for no other form can lay claim to spirituality. God appears indeed in the sun, in the mountains, in the trees, in everything that has life ; but a natural appearance of this kind, is not the form proper to Spirit : here God is cognizable only in the mind of the percipient. If God himself is to be manifested in a corresponding expression, that can only be the human form : for from this the Spiritual beams forth. But if it were asked : Does God necessarily manifest himself ? the question must be answered in the affirmative ; for there is no essential existence that does not manifest itself. The real defect of the Greek religion, as compared with the Christian, is, therefore, that in the former the manifestation constitutes the highest mode in which the Divine being is conceived to exist – the sum and substance of divinity ; while in the Christian religion the manifestation is regarded only as a temporary phase of the Divine. Here the manifested God dies, and elevates himself to glory ; only after death is Christ represented as sitting at the right hand of God. The Greek god, on the contrary, exists for his worshippers perennially in the manifestation – only in marble, in metal or wood, or as figured by the imagination. But why did God not appear to the Greeks in the flesh ? Because man was not duly estimated, did not obtain honor and dignity, till he had more fully elaborated and developed himself in the attainment of the Freedom implicit in the aesthetic manifestation in question ; the form and shaping of the divinity therefore continued to be the product of individual views, [not a general, impersonal one]. One element in Spirit is, that it produces itself – makes itself what it is : and the other is, that it is originally free – that Freedom is its nature and its Idea. But the Greeks, since they had not attained an intellectual conception of themselves, did not yet realize Spirit in its Universality – had not the idea of man and the essential unity of the divine and human nature according to the Christian view. Only the self-reliant, truly subjective Spirit can bear to dispense with the phenomenal side, and can venture to assign the Divine Nature to Spirit alone. It then no longer needs to inweave the Natural into its idea of the Spiritual, in order to hold fast its conception of the Divine, and to have its unity with the Divine, externally visible ; but while free Thought thinks the Phenomenal, it is content to leave it as it is ; for it also thinks that union of the Finite and the Infinite, and recognizes it not as a mere accidental union, but as the Absolute – the eternal Idea itself. Since Subjectivity was not comprehended in all its depth by the Greek Spirit, the true reconciliation was not attained in it, and the human Spirit did not yet assert its true position. This defect showed itself in the fact of Fate as pure subjectivity appearing superior to the gods ; it also shows itself in the fact, that men derive their resolves not yet from themselves, but from their Oracles. Neither human nor divine subjectivity, recognized as infinite, has as yet, absolutely decisive authority.</p> <p>Chapter III. – The Political Work of Art</p> <p>The State unites the two phases just considered, viz., the Subjective and the Objective Work of Art. In the State, Spirit is not a mere Object, like the deities, nor, on the other hand, is it merely subjectively developed to a beautiful physique. It is here a living, universal Spirit, but which is at the same time the self-conscious Spirit of the individuals composing the community. The Democratical Constitution alone was adapted to the Spirit and political condition in question. In the East we recognized Despotism, developed in magnificent proportions, as a form of government strictly appropriate to the Dawn-Land of History. Not less adapted is the democratical form in Greece, to the part assigned to it in the same great drama. In Greece, viz., we have the freedom of the Individual, but it has not yet advanced to such a degree of abstraction, that the subjective unit is conscious of direct dependence on the [general] substantial principle – the State as such. In this grade of Freedom, the individual will is unfettered in the entire range of its vitality, and embodies that substantial principle [the bond of the political union], according to its particular idiosyncrasy. In Rome, on the other hand, we shall observe a harsh sovereignty dominating over the individual members of the State ; as also in the German Empire, a monarchy, in which the Individual is connected with and has devoirs to perform not only in regard to the monarch, but to the whole monarchical organization.</p> <p>The Democratical State is not Patriarchal – does not rest on a still unreflecting, undeveloped confidence – but implies laws, with the consciousness of their being founded on an equitable and moral basis, and the recognition of these laws as positive. At the time of the Kings, no political life had as yet made its appearance in Hellas ; there are, therefore, only slight traces of Legislation. But in the interval from the Trojan War till near the time of Cyrus, its necessity was felt. The first Lawgivers are known under the name of The Seven Sages – a title which at that time did not imply any such character as that of the Sophists – teachers of wisdom, designedly [and systematically] proclaiming the Right and True – but merely thinking men, whose thinking stopped short of Science, properly so called. They were practical politicians ; the good counsels which two of them – Thales of Miletus and Bias of Priene – gave to the Ionian cities, have been already mentioned. Thus Solon was commissioned by the Athenians to give them laws, as those then in operation no longer sufficed. Solon gave the Athenians a constitution by which all obtained equal rights, yet not so as to render the Democracy a quite abstract one. The main point in Democracy is moral disposition. Virtue is the basis of Democracy, remarks Montesquieu ; and this sentiment is as important as it is true in reference to the idea of Democracy commonly entertained. The Substance, [the Principle] of Justice, the common weal, the general interest, is the main consideration ; but it is so only as Custom, in the form of Objective Will, so that morality properly so called – subjective conviction and intention – has not yet manifested itself. Law exists, and is in point of substance, the Law of Freedom – rational [in its form and purport,] and valid because it is Law, i.e., without ulterior sanction. As in Beauty the Natural element – its sensuous coefficient – remains, so also in this customary morality, laws assume the form of a necessity of Nature. The Greeks occupy the middle ground of Beauty and have not yet attained the higher standpoint of Truth. While Custom and Wont is the form in which the Right is willed and done, that form is a stable one, and has not yet admitted into it the foe of [unreflected] immediacy – reflection and subjectivity of Will. The interests of the community may, therefore, continue to be intrusted to the will and resolve of the citizens – and this must be the basis of the Greek constitution ; for no principle has as yet manifested itself, which can contravene such Choice conditioned by Custom, and hinder its realizing itself in action. The Democratic Constitution is here the only possible one : the citizens are still unconscious of particular interests, and therefore of a corrupting element : the Objective Will is in their case not disintegrated. Athene the goddess is Athens itself – i.e., the real and concrete spirit of the citizens. The divinity ceases to inspire their life and conduct, only when the Will has retreated within itself – into the adytum of cognition and conscience – and has posited the infinite schism between the Subjective and the Objective. The above is the true position of the Democratic polity ; its justification and absolute necessity rest on this still immanent Objective Morality. For the modern conceptions of Democracy this justification cannot be pleaded. These provide that the interests of the community, the affairs of State, shall be discussed and decided by the People ; that the individual members of the community shall deliberate, urge their respective opinions, and give their votes ; and this on the ground that the interests of the State and its concerns are the interests of such individual members. All this is very well ; but the essential condition and distinction in regard to various phases of Democracy is : What is the character of these individual members ? They are absolutely authorized to assume their position, only in as far as their will is still Objective Will – not one that wishes this or that, not mere “good” will. For good will is something particular – rests on the morality of individuals, on their conviction and subjective feeling. That very subjective Freedom which constitutes the principle and determines the peculiar form of Freedom in our world – which forms the absolute basis of our political and religious life, could not manifest itself in Greece otherwise than as a destructive element. Subjectivity was a grade not greatly in advance of that occupied by the Greek Spirit ; that phase must of necessity soon be attained : but it plunged the Greek world into ruin, for the polity which that world embodied was not calculated for this side of humanity – did not recognize this phase ; since it had not made its appearance when that polity began to exist. Of the Greeks in the first and genuine form of their Freedom, we may assert, that they had no conscience ; the habit of living for their country without further [analysis or] reflection, was the principle dominant among them. The consideration of the State in the abstract – which to our understanding is the essential point – was alien to them. Their grand object was their country in its living and real aspect ; – this actual Athens, this Sparta, these Temples, these Altars, this form of social life, this union of fellow-citizens, these manners and customs. To the Greek his country was a necessary of life, without which existence was impossible. It was the Sophists – the “Teachers of Wisdom” – who first introduced subjective reflection, and the new doctrine that each man should act according to his own conviction. When reflection once comes into play, the inquiry is started whether the Principles of Law (das Recht) cannot be improved. Instead of holding by the existing state of things, internal conviction is relied upon ; and thus begins a subjective independent Freedom, in which the individual finds himself in a position to bring everything to the test of his own conscience, even in defiance of the existing constitution. Each one has his “principles,” and that view which accords with his private judgment he regards as practically the best, and as claiming practical realization. This decay even Thucydides notices, when he speaks of every one's thinking that things are going on badly when he has not a hand in the management.</p> <p>To this state of things – in which every one presumes to have a judgment of his own – confidence in Great Men is antagonistic. When, in earlier times, the Athenians commission Solon to legislate for them, or when Lycurgus appears at Sparta as lawgiver and regulator of the State, it is evidently not supposed that the people in general think that they know best what is politically right. At a later time also, it was distinguished personages of plastic genius in whom the people placed their confidence : Cleisthenes, e.g., who made the constitution still more democratic than it had been – Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon, who in the Median wars stand at the head of Athenian affairs – and Pericles, in whom Athenian glory centres as in its focus. But as soon as any of these great men had performed what was needed, envy intruded – i.e. the recoil of the sentiment of equality against conspicuous talent – and he was either imprisoned or exiled. Finally, the Sycophants arose among the people, aspersing all individual greatness, and reviling those who took the lead in public affairs.</p> <p>But there are three other points in the condition of the Greek republics that must be particularly observed.</p> <p>1. With Democracy in that form in which alone it existed in Greece, Oracles are intimately connected. To an independent resolve, a consolidated Subjectivity of the Will (in which the latter is determined by preponderating reasons) is absolutely indispensable ; but the Greeks had not this element of strength and vigor in their volition. When a colony was to be founded, when it was proposed to adopt the worship of foreign deities, or when a general was about to give battle to the enemy, the oracles were consulted. Before the battle of Plataea, Pausanias took care that an augury should be taken from the animals offered in sacrifice, and was informed by the soothsayer Tisam-enus that the sacrifices were favorable to the Greeks provided they remained on the hither side of the Asopus, but the contrary, if they crossed the stream and began the battle. Pausanias, therefore, awaited the attack. In their private affairs, too, the Greeks came to a determination not so much from subjective conviction as from some extraneous suggestion. With the advance of democracy we observe the oracles no longer consulted on the most important matters, but the particular views of popular orators influencing and deciding the policy of the State. As at this time Socrates relied upon his “Daemon,” so the popular leaders and the people relied on their individual convictions in forming their decisions. But contemporaneously with this were introduced corruption, disorder, and an unintermitted process of change in the constitution.</p> <p>2. Another circumstance that demands special attention here, is the element of Slavery. This was a necessary condition of an aesthetic democracy, where it was the right and duty of every citizen to deliver or to listen to orations respecting the management of the State in the place of public assembly, to take part in the exercise of the Gymnasia, and to join in the celebration of festivals. It was a necessary condition of such occupations, that the citizens should be freed from handicraft occupations ; consequently, that what among us is performed by free citizens – the work of daily life – should be done by slaves. Slavery does not cease until the Will has been infinitely self-reflected[18] – until Right is conceived as appertaining to every freeman, and the term freeman is regarded as a synonym for man in his generic nature as endowed with Reason. But here we still occupy the standpoint of Morality as mere Wont and Custom, and therefore known only as a peculiarity attaching to a certain kind of existence [not as absolute and universal Law].</p> <p>3. It must also be remarked, thirdly, that such democratic constitutions are possible only in small states – states which do not much exceed the compass of cities. The whole Polis of the Athenians is united in the one city of Athens. Tradition tells that Theseus united the scattered Demes into an integral totality. In the time of Pericles, at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, when the Spartans were marching upon Attica, its entire population took refuge in the city. Only in such cities can the interests of all be similar ; in large empires, on the contrary, diverse and conflicting interests are sure to present themselves. The living together in one city, the fact that the inhabitants see each other daily, render a common culture and a living democratic polity possible. In Democracy, the main point is that the character of the citizen be plastic, all “of a piece.” He must be present at the critical stages of public business ; he must take part in decisive crises with his entire personality – not with his vote merely ; he must mingle in the heat of action – the passion and interest of the whole man being absorbed in the affair, and the warmth with which a resolve was made being equally ardent during its execution. That unity of opinion to which the whole community must be brought [when any political step is to be taken,] must be produced in the individual members of the state by oratorical suasion. If this were attempted by writing – in an abstract, lifeless way – no general fervor would be excited among the social units ; and the greater the number, the less weight would each individual vote have. In a large empire a general inquiry might be made, votes might be gathered in the several communities, and the results reckoned up – as was done by the French Convention. But a political existence of this kind is destitute of life, and the World is ipso facto broken into fragments and dissipated into a mere Paper-world. In the French Revolution, therefore, the republican constitution never actually became a Democracy : Tyranny, Despotism, raised its voice under the mask of Freedom and Equality.</p> <p>We come now to the Second Period of Greek History. The first period saw the Greek Spirit attain its aesthetic development and reach maturity – realize its essential being. The second shows it manifesting itself – exhibits it in its full glory as producing a work for the world, asserting its principle in the struggle with an antagonistic force, and triumphantly maintaining it against that attack.</p> <p>The Wars with the Persians</p> <p>The period of contact with the preceding World-Historical people, is generally to be regarded as the second in the history of any nation. The World-Historical contact of the Greeks was with the Persians ; in that, Greece exhibited itself in its most glorious aspect. The occasion of the Median wars was the revolt of the Ionian cities against the Persians, in which the Athenians and Eretrians assisted them. That which, in particular, induced the Athenians to take their part, was the circumstance that the son of Pisistratus, after his attempts to regain sovereignty in Athens had failed in Greece, had betaken himself to the King of the Persians. The Father of History has given us a brilliant description of these Median wars, and for the object we are now pursuing we need not dwelling upon them.</p> <p>At the beginning of the Median wars, Lacedaemon was in possession of the Hegemony, partly as the result of having subjugated and enslaved the free nation of the Messenians, partly because it had assisted many Greek states to expel their Tyrants. Provoked by the part the Greeks had taken in assisting the Ionians against him, the Persian King sent heralds to the Greek cities to require them to give Water and Earth, i.e. to acknowledge his supremacy. The Persian envoys were contemptuously sent back, and the Lacedaemonians went so far as to throw them into a well – a deed, however, of which they afterwards so deeply repented, as to send two Lacedaemonians to Susa in expiation. The Persian King then despatched an army to invade Greece. With its vastly superior force the Athenians and Plataeans, without aid from their compatriots, contended at Marathon under Miltiades, and gained the victory. Afterwards, Xerxes came down upon Greece with his enormous masses of nations (Herodotus gives a detailed description of this expedition) ; and with the terrible array of land-forces was associated the not less formidable fleet. Thrace, Macedon, and Thessaly were soon subjugated ; but the entrance into Greece Proper – the Pass of Thermopylae – was defended by three hundred Spartans and seven hundred Thespians, whose fate is well known. Athens, voluntarily deserted by its inhabitants, was ravaged ; the images of the gods which it contained were “an abomination” to the Persians, who worshipped the Amorphous, the Unformed. In spite of the disunion of the Greeks, the Persian fleet was beaten at Salamis ; and this glorious battle-day presents the three greatest tragedians of Greece in remarkable chronological association : for Æschylus was one of the combatants, and helped to gain the victory, Sophocles danced at the festival that celebrated it, and on the same day Euripides was born. The host that remained in Greece, under the command of Mardonius, was beaten at Plataea by Pausanias, and the Persian power was consequently broken at various points.</p> <p>Thus was Greece freed from the pressure which threatened to overwhelm it. Greater battles, unquestionably, have been fought ; but these live immortal not in the historical records of Nations only, but also of Science and of Art – of the Noble and the Moral generally. For these are World-Historical victories ; they were the salvation of culture and Spiritual vigor, and they rendered the Asiatic principle powerless. How often, on other occasions, have not men sacrificed everything for one grand object ! How often have not warriors fallen for Duty and Country ! But here we are called to admire not only valor, genius and spirit, but the purport of the contest – the effect, the result, which are unique in their kind. In all other battles a particular interest is predominant ; but the immortal fame of the Greeks is none other than their due, in consideration of the noble cause for which deliverance was achieved. In the history of the world it is not the formal [subjective and individual] valor that has been displayed, not the so-called merit of the combatants, but the importance of the cause itself, that must decide the fame of the achievement. In the case before us, the interest of the World's History hung trembling in the balance. Oriental despotism – a world united under one lord and sovereign – on the one side, and separate states – insignificant in extent and resources, but animated by free individuality – on the other side, stood front to front in array of battle. Never in History has the superiority of spiritual power over material bulk – and that of no contemptible amount – been made so gloriously manifest. This war, and the subsequent development of the states which took the lead in it, is the most brilliant period of Greece. Everything which the Greek principle involved, then reached its perfect bloom and came into the light of day.</p> <p>The Athenians continued their wars of conquest for a considerable time, and thereby attained a high degree of prosperity ; while the Lacedaemonians, who had no naval power, remained quiet. The antagonism of Athens and Sparta now commences – a favorite theme for historical treatment. It may be asserted that it is an idle inquiry, which of these two states justly claims the superiority, and that the endeavor should rather be, to exhibit each as in its own department a necessary and worthy phase of the Greek Spirit. On Sparta's behalf, e.g., many categories may be referred to in which she displays excellence ; strictness in point of morals, subjection to discipline, etc., may be advantageously cited. But the leading principle that characterizes this state is Political Virtue, which Athens and Sparta have, indeed, in common, but which in the one state developed itself to a work of Art, viz., Free Individuality – in the other retained its substantial form. Before we speak of the Pelopon-nesian War, in which the jealousy of Sparta and Athens broke out into a flame, we must exhibit more specifically the fundamental character of the two states – their distinctions in a political and moral respect.</p> <p>Athens</p> <p>We have already become acquainted with Athens as an asylum for the inhabitants of the other districts of Greece, in which a very mixed population was congregated. The various branches of human industry – agriculture, handicraft, and trade (especially by sea) – were united in Athens, but gave occasion to much dissension. An antagonism had early arisen between ancient and wealthy families and such as were poorer. Three parties, whose distinction had been grounded on their local position and the mode of life which that position suggested were then fully recognized. These were, the Pediaeans – inhabitants of the plain, the rich and aristocratic ; the Diacrians – mountaineers, cultivators of the vine and olive, and herdsmen, who were the most numerous class ; and between the two [in political status and sentiment] the Paralians – inhabitants of the coast, the moderate party. The polity of the state was wavering between Aristocracy and Democracy. Solon effected, by his division into four property-classes, a medium between these opposites. All these together formed the popular assembly for deliberation and decision on public affairs ; but the offices of government were reserved for the three superior classes. It is remarkable that even while Solon was still living and actually present, and in spite of his opposition, Pisistratus acquired supremacy. The constitution had, as it were, not yet entered into the blood and life of the community ; it had not yet become the habit of moral and civil existence. But it is still more remarkable that Pisistratus introduced no legislative changes, and that he presented himself before the Areopagus to answer an accusation brought against him. The rule of Pisistratus and of his sons appears to have been needed for repressing the power of great families and factions – for accustoming them to order and peace, and the citizens generally, on the other hand, to the Solonian legislation. This being accomplished, that rule was necessarily regarded as superfluous, and the principles of a free code enter into conflict with the power of the Pisistratidae. The Pisistratidae were expelled, Hipparchus killed, and Hippias banished. Then factions were revived ; the Alcmaeonidas, who took the lead in the insurrection, favored Democracy ; on the other hand, the Spartans aided the adverse party of Isagoras, which followed the aristocratic direction. The Alcmaeonidae, with Cleisthenes at their head, kept the upper hand. This leader made the constitution still more democratic than it had been ; the pulai, of which hitherto there had been only four, were increased to ten, and this had the effect of diminishing the influence of the clans. Lastly, Pericles rendered the constitution yet more democratic by diminishing the essential dignity of the Areopagus, and bringing causes that had hitherto belonged to it, before the Demos and the [ordinary] tribunals.</p> <p>Pericles was a statesman of plastic[19] antique character : when he devoted himself to public life, he renounced private life, withdrew from all feasts and banquets, and pursued without intermission his aim of being useful to the state – a course of conduct by which he attained such an exalted position, that Aristophanes calls him the Zeus of Athens. We cannot but admire him in the highest degree : he stood at the head of a light-minded but highly refined and cultivated people ; the only means by which he could obtain influence and authority over them, was his personal character and the impression he produced of his being a thoroughly noble man, exclusively intent upon the weal of the State, and of superiority to his fellow-citizens in native genius and acquired knowledge. In force of individual character no statesman can be compared with him.</p> <p>As a general principle, the Democratic Constitution affords the widest scope for the development of great political characters ; for it excels all others in virtue of the fact that it not only allows of the display of their powers on the part of individuals, but summons them to use those powers for the general weal. At the same time, no member of the community can obtain influence unless he has the power of satisfying the intellect and judgment, as well as the passions and volatility of a cultivated people. In Athens a vital freedom existed, and a vital equality of manners and mental culture ; and if inequality of property could not be avoided, it nevertheless did not reach an extreme. Together with this equality, and within the compass of this freedom, all diversities of character and talent, and all variety of idiosyncrasy could assert themselves in the most unrestrained manner, and find the most abundant stimulus to development in its environment ; for the predominant elements of Athenian existence were the independence of the social units, and a culture animated by the Spirit of Beauty. It was Pericles who originated the production of those eternal monuments of sculpture whose scanty remains astonish posterity ; it was before this people that the dramas of Æschylus and Sophocles were performed ; and later on those of Euripides – which, however, do not exhibit the same plastic moral character, and in which the principle of corruption is more manifest. To this people were addressed the orations of Pericles : from it sprung a band of men whose genius has become classical for all centuries ; for to this number belong,” besides those already named, Thucydides, Socrates, Plato, and Aristophanes – the last of whom preserved entire the political seriousness of his people at the time when it was being corrupted ; and who, imbued with this seriousness, wrote and dramatized with a view to his country's weal. We recognize in the Athenians great industry, susceptibility to excitement, and development of individuality within the sphere of Spirit conditioned by the morality of Custom. The blame with which we find them visited in Xenophon and Plato, attaches rather to that later period when misfortune and the corruption of the democracy had already supervened. But if we would have the verdict of the Ancients on the political life of Athens, we must turn, not to Xenophon, nor even to Plato, but to those who had a thorough acquaintance with the state in its full vigor – who managed its affairs and have been esteemed its greatest leaders – i.e., to its Statesmen. Among these, Pericles is the Zeus of the human Pantheon of Athens. Thucydides puts into his mouth the most profound description of Athenian life, on the occasion of the funeral obsequies of the warriors who fell in the second year of the Peloponnesian War. He proposes to show for what a city and in support of what interests they had died ; and this leads the speaker directly to the essential elements of the Athenian community. He goes on to paint the character of Athens, and what he says is most profoundly thoughtful, as well as most just and true. “We love the beautiful,” he says, “but without ostentation or extravagance ; we philosophize without being seduced thereby into effeminacy and inactivity (for when men give themselves up to Thought, they get further and further from the Practical – from activity for the public, for the common weal). We are bold and daring ; but this courageous energy in action does not prevent us from giving ourselves an account of what we undertake (we have a clear consciousness respecting it) ; among other nations, on the contrary, martial daring has its basis in deficiency of culture : we know best how to distinguish between the agreeable and the irksome ; notwithstanding which, we do not shrink from perils.”</p> <p>Thus Athens exhibited the spectacle of a state whose existence was essentially directed to realizing the Beautiful, which had a thoroughly cultivated consciousness respecting the serious side of public affairs and the interests of Man's Spirit and Life, and united with that consciousness, hardy courage and practical ability.</p> <p>Sparta</p> <p>Here we witness on the other hand rigid abstract virtue – a life devoted to the State, but in which the activity and freedom of individuality are put in the background. The polity of Sparta is based on institutions which do full justice to the interest of the State, but whose object is a lifeless equality – not free movement. The very first steps in Spartan History are very different from the early stages of Athenian development. The Spartans were Dorians – the Athenians, Ionians ; and this national distinction has an influence on their Constitution also. In reference to the mode in which the Spartan State originated, we observe that the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus with the Heracleidas, subdued the indigenous tribes, and condemned them to slavery ; for the Helots were doubtless aborigines. The fate that had befallen the Helots was suffered at a later epoch by the Messenians ; for inhuman severity of this order was innate in Spartan character. While the Athenians had a family-life, and slaves among them were inmates of the house, the relation of the Spartans to the subjugated race was one of even greater harshness than that of the Turks to the Greeks ; a state of warfare was constantly kept up in Lacedaemon. In entering upon office, the Ephors made an unreserved declaration of war against the Helots, and the latter were habitually given up to the younger Spartans to be practised upon in their martial exercises. The Helots were on some occasions set free, and fought against the enemy ; moreover, they displayed extraordinary valor in the ranks of the Spartans ; but on their return they were butchered in the most cowardly and insidious way. As in a slave-ship the crew are constantly armed, and the greatest care is taken to prevent an insurrection, so the Spartans exercised a constant vigilance over the Helots, and were always in a condition of war, as against enemies.</p> <p>Property in land was divided, even according to the constitution of Lycurgus (as Plutarch relates), into equal parts, of which 9,000 only belonged to the Spartans – i.e., the inhabitants of the city – and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians or Period. At the same time it was appointed, in order to maintain this equality, that the portions of ground should not be sold. But how little such an institution avails to effect its object, is proved by the fact, that in the sequel Lacedaemon owed its ruin chiefly to the inequality of possessions. As daughters were capable of inheriting, many estates had come by marriage into the possession of a few families, and at last all the landed property was in the hands of a limited number ; as if to show how foolish it is to attempt a forced equality – an attempt which, while ineffective in realizing its professed object, is also destructive of a most essential point of liberty – the free disposition of property. Another remarkable feature in the legislation of Lycurgus, is his forbidding all money except that made of iron – an enactment which necessitated the abolition of all foreign business and traffic. The Spartans moreover had no naval force – a force indispensable to the support and furtherance of commerce ; and on occasions when such a force was required, they had to apply to the Persians for it.</p> <p>It was with an especial view to promote similarity of manners, and a more intimate acquaintance of the citizens with each other, that the Spartans had meals in common – a community, however, which disparaged family life ; for eating and drinking is a private affair, and consequently belongs to domestic retirement. It was so regarded among the Athenians ; with them association was not material but spiritual, and even their banquets, as we see from Xenophon and Plato, had an intellectual tone. Among the Spartans, on the other hand, the costs of the common meal were met by the contributions of the several members, and he who was too poor to offer such a contribution was consequently excluded.</p> <p>As to the Political Constitution of Sparta, its basis may be called democratic, but with considerable modifications which rendered it almost an Aristocracy and Oligarchy. At the head of the State were two Kings, at whose side was a Senate (gerousia), chosen from the best men of the State, and which also performed the functions of a court of justice – deciding rather in accordance with moral and legal customs, than with written laws.[20] The gerousia also the highest State-Council – the Council of the Kings, regulating the most important affairs. Lastly, one of the highest magistracies was that of the Ephors, respecting whose election we have no definite information ; Aristotle says that the mode of choice was exceedingly childish. We learn from Aristotle that even persons without nobility or property could attain this dignity. The Ephors had full authority to convoke popular assemblies, to put resolutions to the vote, and to propose laws, almost in the same way as the tribuni plebis in Rome. Their power became tyrannical, like that which Robespierre and his party exercised for a time in France.</p> <p>While the Lacedaemonians directed their entire attention to the State, Intellectual Culture – Art and Science – was not domiciled among them. The Spartans appeared to the rest of the Greeks, stiff, coarse, awkward beings, who could not transact business involving any degree of intricacy, or at least performed it very clumsily. Thucydides makes the Athenians say to the Spartans : “You have laws and customs which have nothing in common with others ; and besides this, you proceed, when you go into other countries, neither in accordance with these, nor with the traditionary usages of Hellas.” In their intercourse at home, they were, on the whole, honorable ; but as regarded their conduct towards other nations, they themselves plainly declared that they held their own good pleasure for the Commendable, and what was advantageous for the Right. It is well known that in Sparta (as was also the case in Egypt) the taking away of the necessaries of life, under certain conditions, was permitted ; only the thief must not allow himself to be discovered. Thus the two States, Athens and Sparta, stand in contrast with each other. The morality of the latter is rigidly directed to the maintenance of the State ; in the former we find a similar ethical relation, but with a cultivated consciousness, and boundless activity in the production of the Beautiful – subsequently, of the True also. This Greek morality, though extremely beautiful, attractive and interesting in its manifestation, is not the highest point of view for Spiritual self-consciousness. It wants the form of Infinity, the reflection of thought within itself, the emancipation from the Natural element – (the Sensuous that lurks in the character of Beauty and Divinity [as comprehended by the Greeks]) – and from that immediacy, [that undeveloped simplicity,] which attaches to their ethics. Self- Comprehension on the part of Thought is wanting – illimitable Self-Consciousness – demanding, that what is regarded by me as Right and Morality should have its confirmation in myself – from the testimony of my own Spirit ; that the Beautiful (the Idea as manifested in sensuous contemplation or conception) may also become the True – an inner, supersensuous world. The standpoint occupied by the Æsthetic Spiritual Unity which we have just described, could not long be the resting-place of Spirit ; and the element in which further advance and corruption originated, was that of Subjectivity – inward morality, individual reflection, and an inner life generally. The perfect bloom of Greek life lasted only about sixty years – from the Median wars, B.C. 492, to the Peloponnesian War, B.C. 431. The principle of subjective morality which was inevitably introduced, became the germ of corruption, which, however, showed itself in a different form in Athens from that which it assumed in Sparta : in Athens, as levity in public conduct, in Sparta, as private depravation of morals. In their fall, the Athenians showed themselves not only amiable, but great and noble – to such a degree that we cannot but lament it ; among the Spartans, on the contrary, the principle of subjectivity develops itself in vulgar greed, and issues in vulgar ruin.</p> <p>The Peloponnesian War</p> <p>The principle of corruption displayed itself first in the external political development – in the contest of the states of Greece with each other, and the struggle of factions within the cities themselves. The Greek Morality had made Hellas unfit to form one common state ; for the dissociation of small states from each other, and the concentration in cities, where the interest and the spiritual culture pervading the whole, could be identical, was the necessary condition of that grade of Freedom which the Greeks occupied. It was only a momentary combination that occurred in the Trojan War, and even in the Median wars a union could not be accomplished. Although the tendency towards such a union is discoverable, the bond was but weak, its permanence was always endangered by jealousy, and the contest for the Hegemony set the States at variance with each other. A general outbreak of hostilities in the Peloponnesian War was the consummation. Before it, and even at its commencement, Pericles was at the head of the Athenian nation – that people most jealous of its liberty ; it was only his elevated personality and great genius that enabled him to maintain his position. After the wars with the Medes, Athens enjoyed the Hegemony ; a number of allies – partly islands, partly towns – were obliged to contribute to the supplies required for continuing the war against the Persians ; and instead of the contribution being made in the form of fleets or troops, the subsidy was paid in money. Thereby an immense power was concentrated in Athens ; a part of the money was expended in great architectural works, in the enjoyment of which, since they were products of Spirit, the allies had some share. But that Pericles did not devote the whole of the money to works of Art, but also made provision for the Demos in other ways, was evident after his death, from the quantity of stores amassed in several magazines, but especially in the naval arsenal. Xenophon says : “Who does not stand in need of Athens ? Is she not indispensable to all lands that are rich in corn and herds, in oil and wine – to all who wish to traffic either in money or in mind ? – to craftsmen, sophists, philosophers, poets, and all who desire what is worth seeing or hearing in sacred and public matters ?”</p> <p>In the Peloponnesian War, the struggle was essentially between Athens and Sparta. Thucydides has left us the history of the greater part of it, and his immortal work is the absolute gain which humanity has derived from that contest. Athens allowed herself to be hurried into the extravagant projects of Alcibiades ; and when these had already much weakened her, she was compelled to succumb to the Spartans, who were guilty of the treachery of applying for aid to Persia, and who obtained from the King supplies of money and a naval force. They were also guilty of a still more extensive treason, in abolishing democracy in Athens and in the cities of Greece generally, and in giving a preponderance to factions that desired oligarchy, but were not strong enough to maintain themselves without foreign assistance. Lastly, in the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta put the finishing stroke to her treachery, by giving over the Greek cities in Asia Minor to Persian dominion.</p> <p>Lacedaemon had therefore, both by the oligarchies which it had set up in various countries, and by the garrisons which it maintained in some cities – as, e.g., Thebes – obtained a great preponderance in Greece. But the Greek states were far more incensed at Spartan oppression than they had previously been at Athenian supremacy. With Thebes at their head, they cast off the yoke, and the Thebans became for a moment the most distinguished people in Hellas. But it was to two distinguished men among its citizens that Thebes owed its entire power – Pelopidas and Epaminondas ; as for the most part in that state we find the Subjective preponderant. In accordance with this principle, Lyrical Poetry – that which is the expression of subjectivity – especially flourished there ; a kind of subjective amenity of nature shows itself also in the so- called Sacred Legion which formed the kernel of the Theban host, and was regarded as consisting of persons connected by amatory bonds [amantes and amati] ; while the influence of subjectivity among them was especially proved by the fact, that after the death of Epaminondas, Thebes fell back into its former position. Weakened and distracted, Greece could no longer find safety in itself, and needed an authoritative prop. In the towns there were incessant contests ; the citizens were divided into factions, as in the Italian cities of the Middle Ages. The victory of one party entailed the banishment of the other ; the latter then usually applied to the enemies of their native city, to obtain their aid in subjugating it by force of arms. The various States could no longer co-exist peaceably : they prepared ruin for each other, as well as for themselves.</p> <p>We have, then, now to investigate the corruption of the Greek world in its profounder import, and may denote the principle of that corruption as subjectivity obtaining emancipation for itself. We see Subjectivity obtruding itself in various ways. Thought – the subjectively Universal – menaces the beautiful religion of Greece, while the passions of individuals and their caprice menace its political constitution. In short, Subjectivity, comprehending and manifesting itself, threatens the existing state of things in every department – characterized as that state of things is by Immediacy [a primitive, unreflecting simplicity]. Thought, therefore, appears here as the principle of decay – decay, viz. of Substantial [prescriptive] morality ; for it introduces an antithesis, and asserts essentially rational principles. In the Oriental states, in which there is no such antithesis, moral freedom cannot be realized, since the highest principle is [Pure] Abstraction. But when Thought recognizes its positive character, as in Greece, it establishes principles ; and these bear to the real world the relation of Essence to Form. For the concrete vitality found among the Greeks, is Customary Morality – a life for Religion, for the State, without further reflection, and without analysis leading to abstract definitions, which must lead away from the concrete embodiment of them, and occupy an antithetical position to that embodiment. Law is part of the existing state of things, with Spirit implicit in it. But as soon as Thought arises, it investigates the various political constitutions : as the result of its investigation it forms for itself an idea of an improved state of society, and demands that this ideal should take the place of things as they are.</p> <p>In the principle of Greek Freedom, inasmuch as it is Freedom, is involved the self-emancipation of Thought. We observed the dawn of Thought in the circle of men mentioned above under their well-known appellation of the Seven Sages. It was they who first uttered general propositions ; though at that time wisdom consisted rather in a concrete insight [into things, than in the power of abstract conception]. Parallel with the advance in the development of Religious Art and with political growth, we find a progressive strengthening of Thought, its enemy and destroyer ; and at the time of the Peloponnesian War science was already developed. With the Sophists began the process of reflection on the existing state of things, and of ratiocination. That very diligence and activity which we observed among the Greeks in their practical life, and in the achievement of works of art, showed itself also in the turns and windings which these ideas took ; so that, as material things are changed, worked up and used for other than their original purposes, similarly the essential being of Spirit – what is thought and known – is variously handled ; it is made an object about which the mind can employ itself, and this occupation becomes an interest in and for itself. The movement of Thought – that which goes on within its sphere [without reference to an extrinsic object] – a process which had formerly no interest – acquires attractiveness on its own account. The cultivated Sophists, who were not erudite or scientific men, but masters of subtle turns of thought, excited the admiration of the Greeks. For all questions they had an answer ; for all interests of a political or religious order they had general points of view ; and in the ultimate development of their art, they claimed the ability to prove everything, to discover a justifiable side in every position. In a democracy it is a matter of the first importance, to be able to speak in popular assemblies – to urge one's opinions on public matters. Now this demands the power of duly presenting before them that point of view which we desire them to regard as essential. For such a purpose, intellectual culture is needed, and this discipline the Greeks acquired under their Sophists. This mental culture then became the means, in the hands of those who possessed it, of enforcing their views and interests on the Demos : the expert Sophist knew how to turn the subject of discussion this way or that way at pleasure, and thus the doors were thrown wide open to all human passions. A leading principle of the Sophists was, that “Man is the measure of all things” ; but in this, as in all their apophthegms, lurks an ambiguity, since the term “Man” may denote Spirit in its depth and truth, or in the aspect of mere caprice and private interest. The Sophists meant Man simply as subjective, and intended in this dictum of theirs, that mere liking was the principle of Right, and that advantage to the individual was the ground of final appeal. This Sophistic principle appears again and again, though under different forms, in various periods of History ; thus even in our own times subjective opinion of what is right – mere feeling – is made the ultimate ground of decision.</p> <p>In Beauty, as the Greek principle, there was a concrete unity of Spirit, united with Reality, with Country and Family, etc. In this unity no fixed point of view had as yet been adopted within the Spirit itself, and Thought, as far as it transcended this unity, was still swayed by mere liking ; [the Beautiful, the Becoming (to prepou) conducted men in the path of moral propriety, but apart from this they had no firm abstract principle of Truth and Virtue]. But Anaxagoras himself had taught, that Thought itself was the absolute Essence of the World. And it was in Socrates, that at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, the principle of subjectivity – of the absolute inherent independence of Thought – attained free expression. He taught that man has to discover and recognize in himself what is the Right and Good, and that this Right and Good is in its nature universal. Socrates is celebrated as a Teacher of Morality, but we should rather call him the Inventor of Morality. The Greeks had a customary morality ; but Socrates undertook to teach them what moral virtues, duties, etc. were. The moral man is not he who merely wills and does that which is right – not the merely innocent man – but he who has the consciousness of what he is doing. Socrates – in assigning to insight, to conviction, the determination of men's actions – posited the Individual as capable of a final moral decision, in contraposition to Country and to Customary Morality, and thus made himself an Oracle, in the Greek sense. He said that he had a daimonion within him, which counselled him what to do, and revealed to him what was advantageous to his friends. The rise of the inner world of Subjectivity was the rupture with the existing Reality. Though Socrates himself continued to perform his duties as a citizen, it was not the actual State and its religion, but the world of Thought that was his true home. Now the question of the existence and nature of the gods came to be discussed. The disciple of Socrates, Plato, banished from his ideal state, Homer and Hesiod, the originators of that mode of conceiving of religious objects which prevailed among the Greeks ; for he desiderated a higher conception of what was to be reverenced as divine – one more in harmony with Thought. Many citizens now seceded from practical and political life, to live in the ideal world. The principle of Socrates manifests a revolutionary aspects towards the Athenian State ; for the peculiarity of this State was, that Customary Morality was the form in which its existence was moulded, viz. – an inseparable connection of Thought with actual life. When Socrates wishes to induce his friends to reflection, the discourse has always a negative tone ; he brings them to the consciousness that they do not know what the Right is. But when on account of the giving utterance to that principle which was advancing to recognition, Socrates is condemned to death, the sentence bears on the one hand the aspect of unimpeachable rectitude – inasmuch as the Athenian people condemns its deadliest foe – but on the other hand, that of a deeply tragical character, inasmuch as the Athenians had to make the discovery, that what they reprobated in Socrates had already struck firm root among themselves, and that they must be pronounced guilty or innocent with him. With this feeling they condemned the accusers of Socrates, and declared him guiltless.</p> <p>In Athens that higher principle which proved the ruin of the Athenian state, advanced in its development without intermission. Spirit had acquired the propensity to gain satisfaction for itself – to reflect. Even in decay the Spirit of Athens appears majestic, because it manifests itself as the free, the liberal – exhibiting its successive phases in their pure idiosyncrasy – in that form in which they really exist. Amiable and cheerful even in the midst of tragedy is the light- heartedness and nonchalance with which the Athenians accompany their [national] morality to its grave. We recognize the higher interest of the new culture in the fact that the people made themselves merry over their own follies, and found great entertainment in the comedies of Aristophanes, which have the severest satire for their contents, while they bear the stamp of the most unbridled mirth.</p> <p>In Sparta the same corruption is introduced, since the social unit seeks to assert his individuality against the moral life of the community : but there we have merely the isolated side of particular subjectivity – corruption in its undisguised form, blank immorality, vulgar selfishness and venality. All these passions manifest themselves in Sparta, especially in the persons of its generals, who, for the most part living at a distance from their country, obtain an opportunity of securing advantages at the expense of their own state as well as of those to whose assistance they are sent.</p> <p>The Macedonian Empire</p> <p>After the fall of Athens, Sparta took upon herself the Hegemony ; but misused it – as already mentioned – so selfishly, that she was universally hated. Thebes could not long sustain the part of humiliating Sparta, and was at last exhausted in the war with the Phocians. The Spartans and the Phocians – the former because they had surprised the citadel of Thebes, the latter because they had tilled a piece of land belonging to the Delphin Apollo – had been sentenced to pay considerable sums of money. Both states however refused payment ; for the Amphictyonic Council had not much more authority than the old German Diet, which the German princes obeyed only so far as suited their inclination. The Phocians were then to be punished by the Thebans ; but by an egregious piece of violence – by desecrating and plundering the temple at Delphi – the former attained momentary superiority. This deed completes the ruin of Greece ; the sanctuary was desecrated, the god so to speak, killed ; the last support of unity was thereby annihilated ; reverence for that which in Greece had been as it were always the final arbiter – its monarchical principle – was displaced, insulted, and trodden under foot.</p> <p>The next step in advance is then that quite simple one, that the place of the dethroned oracle should be taken by another deciding will – a real authoritative royalty. The foreign Macedonian King – Philip – undertook to avenge the violation of the oracle, and forthwith took its place, by making himself lord of Greece. Philip reduced under his dominion the Hellenic States, and convinced them that it was all over with their independence, and that they could no longer maintain their own footing. The charge of littleness, harshness, violence, and political treachery – all those hateful characteristics with which Philip has so often been reproached – did not extend to the young Alexander, when he placed himself at the head of the Greeks. He had no need to incur such reproaches ; he had not to form a military force, for he found one already in existence. As he had only to mount Bucephalus, and take the rein in hand, to make him obsequious to his will, just so he found that Macedonian phalanx prepared for his purpose – that rigid welltrained iron mass, the power of which had been demonstrated under Philip, who copied it from Epaminondas.</p> <p>Alexander had been educated by the deepest and also the most comprehensive thinker of antiquity – Aristotle ; and the education was worthy of the man who had undertaken it. Alexander was initiated into the profoundest metaphysics : therefore his nature was thoroughly refined and liberated from the customary bonds of mere opinion, crudities and idle fancies. Aristotle left this grand nature as untrammelled as it was before his instructions commenced ; but impressed upon it a deep perception of what the True is, and formed the spirit which nature had so richly endowed to a plastic being, rolling freely like an orb through its circumambient ether.</p> <p>Thus accomplished, Alexander placed himself at the head of the Hellenes, in order to lead Greece over into Asia. A youth of twenty, he commanded a thoroughly experienced army, whose generals were all veterans, well versed in the art of war. It was Alexander's aim to avenge Greece for all that Asia had inflicted upon it for so many years, and to fight out at last the ancient feud and contest between the East and the West. While in this struggle he retaliated upon the Oriental world what Greece had suffered from it, he also made a return for the rudiments of culture which had been derived thence by spreading the maturity and culmination of that culture over the East ; and, as it were, changed the stamp of subjugated Asia and assimilated it to a Hellenic land. The grandeur and the interest of this work were proportioned to his genius – to his peculiar youthful individuality – the like of which in so beautiful a form we have not seen a second time at the head of such an undertaking. For not only were the genius of a commander, the greatest spirit, and consummate bravery united in him, but all these qualities were dignified by the beauty of his character as a man and an individual. Though his generals were devoted to him, they had been the long tried servants of his father ; and this made his position difficult : for his greatness and youth was a humiliation to them, as inclined to regard themselves and the achievements of the past, as a complete work ; so that while their envy, as in Clitus's case, arose to blind rage, Alexander also was excited to great violence.</p> <p>Alexander's expedition to Asia was at the same time a journey of discovery ; for it was he who first opened the Oriental World to the Europeans, and penetrated into countries – as e.g. Bactria, Sogdiana, northern India – which have since been hardly visited by Europeans. The arrangement of the march, and not less the military genius displayed in the disposition of battles, and in tactics generally, will always remain an object of admiration. He was great as a commander in battles, wise in conducting marches and marshalling troops, and the bravest soldier in the thick of the fight. Even the death of Alexander, which occurred at Babylon in the three-and-thirtieth year of his age, gives us a beautiful spectacle of his greatness, and shows in what relation he stood to his army : for he takes leave of it with the perfect consciousness of his dignity.</p> <p>Alexander had the good fortune to die at the proper time ; i.e. it may be called good fortune, but it is rather a necessity. That he may stand before the eyes of posterity as a youth, an early death must hurry him away. Achilles, as remarked above, begins the Greek world, and his autotype Alexander concludes it : and these youths not only supply a picture of the fairest kind in their own persons, but at the same time afford a complete and perfect type of Hellenic existence. Alexander finished his work and completed his ideal ; and thus bequeathed to the world one of the noblest and most brilliant of visions, which our poor reflections only serve to obscure. For the great World-Historical form of Alexander, the modern standard applied by recent historical “Philistines” – that of virtue or morality – will by no means suffice. And if it be alleged in depreciation of his merit, that he had no successor, and left behind no dynasty, we may remark that the Greek kingdoms that arose in Asia after him, are his dynasty. For two years he was engaged in a campaign in Bactria, which brought him into contact with the Massagetse and Scythians ; and there arose the Grseco-Bactrian kingdom which lasted for two centuries. Thence the Greeks came into connection with India, and even with China. The Greek dominion spread itself over northern India, and Sandrokottus (Chandraguptas) is mentioned as the first who emancipated himself from it. The same name presents itself indeed among the Hindoos, but for reasons already stated, we can place very little dependence upon such mention. Other Greek Kingdoms arose in Asia Minor, in Armenia, in Syria and Babylonia. But Egypt especially, among the kingdoms of the successors of Alexander, became a great centre of science and art ; for a great number of its architectural works belong to the time of the Ptolemies, as has been made out from the deciphered inscriptions. Alexandria became the chief centre of commerce – the point of union for Eastern manners and tradition with Western civilization. Besides these, the Macedonian Kingdom, that of Thrace, stretching beyond the Danube, that of Illyria, and that of Epirus, flourished under the sway of Greek princes.</p> <p>Alexander was also extraordinarily attached to the sciences, and he is celebrated as next to Pericles the most liberal patron of the arts. Meier says in his “History of Art,” that his intelligent love of art would have secured him an immortality of fame not less than his conquests.</p> <p>Section III : The Fall of the Greek Spirit.</p> <p>This third period in the history of the Hellenic World, which embraces the protracted development of the evil destiny of Greece, interests us less. Those who had been Alexander's Generals, now assuming an independent appearance on the stage of history as Kings, carried on long wars with each other, and experienced, almost all of them, the most romantic revolutions of fortune. Especially remarkable and prominent in this respect is the life of Demetrius Poliorcetes.</p> <p>In Greece the States had preserved their existence : brought to a consciousness of their weakness by Philip and Alexander, they contrived to enjoy an apparent vitality, and boasted of an unreal independence. That self-consciousness which independence confers, they could not have ; and diplomatic statesmen took the lead in the several States – orators who were not at the same time generals, as was the case formerly – e.g. in the person of Pericles. The countries of Greece now assume various relations to the different monarchs, who continued to contend for the sovereignty of the Greek States – partly also for their favor, especially for that of Athens : for Athens still presented an imposing figure – if not as a Power, yet certainly as the centre of the higher arts and sciences, especially of Philosophy and Rhetoric. Besides it kept itself more free from the gross excess, coarseness and passions which prevailed in the other States, and made them contemptible ; and the Syrian and Egyptian kings deemed it an honor to make Athens large presents of corn and other useful supplies. To some extent too the kings of the period reckoned it their greatest glory to render and to keep the Greek cities and states independent. The Emancipation of Greece had as it were, become the general watch-word ; and it passed for a high title of fame to be called the Deliverer of Greece. If we examine the hidden political bearing of this word, we shall find that it denotes the prevention of any indigenous Greek State from obtaining decided superiority, and keeping all in a state of weakness by separation and disorganization.</p> <p>The special peculiarity by which each Greek State was distinguished from the others consisted in a difference similar to that of their glorious divinities, each one of whom has his particular character and peculiar being, yet so that this peculiarity does not derogate from the divinity common to all. When therefore, this divinity has become weak and has vanished from the States, nothing but the bare particularity remains – the repulsive speciality which obstinately and waywardly asserts itself, and which on that very account assumes a position of absolute dependence and of conflict with others. Yet the feeling of weakness and misery led to combinations here and there. The Italians and their allies as a predatory people, set up injustice, violence, fraud, and insolence to others, as their charter of rights. Sparta was governed by infamous tyrants and odious passions, and in this condition was dependent on the Macedonian Kings. The Boeotian subjective character had, after the extinction of Theban glory, sunk down into indolence and the vulgar desire of coarse sensual enjoyment. The Achaean league distinguished itself by the aim of its union (the expulsion of Tyrants,) by rectitude and the sentiment of community. But this too was obliged to take refuge in the most complicated policy. What we see here on the whole is a diplomatic condition – an infinite involvement with the most manifold foreign interests – a subtle intertexture and play of parties, whose threads are continually being combined anew.</p> <p>In the internal condition of the states, which, enervated by selfishness and debauchery, were broken up into factions – each of which on the other hand directs its attention to foreign lands, and with treachery to its native country begs for the favors of the Kings – the point of interest is no longer the fate of these states, but the great individuals, who arise amid the general corruption, and honorably devote themselves to their country. They appear as great tragic characters, who with their genius, and the most intense exertion, are yet unable to extirpate the evils in question ; and perish in the struggle, without having had the satisfaction of restoring to their fatherland repose, order and freedom, nay, even without having secured a reputation with posterity free from all stain. Livy says in his prefatory remarks : “In our times we can neither endure our faults nor the means of correcting them.” And this is quite as applicable to these Last of the Greeks, who began an undertaking which was as honorable and noble, as it was sure of being frustrated. Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and Philopoemen, thus sunk under the struggle for the good of their nation. Plutarch sketches for us a highly characteristic picture of these times, in giving us a representation of the importance of individuals during their continuance.</p> <p>The third period of the history of the Greeks brings us to their contact with that people which was to play the next part on the theatre of the World's History ; and the chief excuse for this contact was – as pretexts had previously been – the liberation of Greece. After Perseus the last Macedonian King, in the year 168 B.C. had been conquered by the Romans and brought in triumph to Rome, the Achaean league was attacked and broken up, and at last in the year 146 B.C. Corinth was destroyed. Looking at Greece as Polybius describes it, we see how a noble nature such as his, has nothing left for it but to despair at the state of affairs and to retreat into Philosophy ; or if it attempts to act, can only die in the struggle. In deadly contraposition to the multiform variety of passion which Greece presents – that distracted condition which whelms good and evil in one common ruin – stands a blind fate – an iron power ready to show up that degraded condition in all its weakness, and to dash it to pieces in miserable ruin ; for cure, amendment, and consolation are impossible. And this crushing Destiny is the Roman power.</p></div> L'histoire de la pensée humaine est celle de la dialectique révolutionnaire des négations... http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article9016 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article9016 2024-11-27T23:03:00Z text/html fr Robert Paris, Tiekoura Levi Hamed Dialectic - Dialectique Contradictions Hegel <p>L'histoire de la pensée humaine est celle de la dialectique révolutionnaire des négations <br class='autobr' /> On se souvient que Hegel attribuait un caractère transformateur aux négations dialectiques. La négation détruit l'ancien, tout en intégrant des éléments de ce passé dans un élément nouveau. La mort n'est pas une fin définitive mais le début d'un monde nouveau. Le nouveau est issu de l'ancien par la destruction de certains de ses attributs. Ainsi, la plante se transforme par des négations successives. (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique37" rel="directory">Formation et filiation de l'homme</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag">Dialectic - Dialectique</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot78" rel="tag">Contradictions</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">L'histoire de la pensée humaine est celle de la dialectique révolutionnaire des négations</h2> <p>On se souvient que Hegel attribuait un caractère transformateur aux négations dialectiques. La négation détruit l'ancien, tout en intégrant des éléments de ce passé dans un élément nouveau. La mort n'est pas une fin définitive mais le début d'un monde nouveau. Le nouveau est issu de l'ancien par la destruction de certains de ses attributs. Ainsi, la plante se transforme par des négations successives.</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3271" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3271</a></p> <p>La contradiction, dans Science de la Logique de Hegel</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570</a></p> <p>La dialectique est le mode de fonctionnement général du changement</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5126" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5126</a></p> <p>Comment Hegel conçoit la dialectique des contradictions et, pour lui, la dialectique n'est pas seulement un mode de pensée mais le mode de formation et de transformation du réel... Nous verrons ainsi que l'apparition de l'écrit est, en même temps, destruction de l'ancien mode oral et accommodation de l'écrit et de l'oral...</p> <p>Hegel écrivait ainsi que le fait de nommer les choses détruit leur ancienne existence :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p>« Dans le "nom" est supprimé l'"être" empirique de l'étant, c'est-à-dire le fait que l'étant est un être-concret, multiple en-soi, vivant et existant : alors cet étant est transformé en un être idéel absolument simple en lui-même. Le premier acte par lequel Adam a constitué sa maîtrise sur les animaux fut de leur donner un nom, c'est-à-dire qu'il les a anéantis comme étants et en a fait des êtres idéels-pour-soi. »</p> </blockquote> <p>Il écrit encore :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p>« L'esprit est cette puissance en n'étant pas semblable au positif qui se détourne du négatif... Mais l'esprit est cette puissance seulement en regardant le négatif en face, et en sachant séjourner près de lui. »</p> </blockquote> <p>Et aussi :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p>« La seule chose nécessaire pour obtenir la progression scientifique, et vers la compréhension de laquelle il faut essentiellement s'efforcer, c'est la connaissance de cette proposition logique : le négatif est également positif, autrement dit, ce qui se contredit ne se résout pas en zéro, en néant abstrait, mais essentiellement en la négation de son contenu particulier ; autrement dit encore, une telle négation n'est pas complète négation, mais négation de la chose déterminée. (…) Le résultant, la négation, étant négation déterminée, a un contenu. Elle est un concept nouveau, mais plus haut, plus riche que le précédent, car elle s'est enrichie de sa négation, autrement dit de son opposé (…) elle est l'unité d'elle-même et de son opposé. »</p> </blockquote> <p>Introduction à la « Science de la logique » de Hegel</p> <p>Ce pouvoir révolutionnaire de la négation, l'homme va l'expérimenter de manières diverses au cours de son histoire. Il ne fera pas que nommer la réalité, qu'abstraire, que conceptualiser, que fabuler, que conter, qu'inventer, qu'imaginer, que rêver, il va construire des raisonnements, des objets de pensée et les travailler... C'est ce que nous tentons ici de rapporter...</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article572" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article572</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5109" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5109</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6570</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2424" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2424</a></p> <p>Rappelons-nous la manière dont la quantité se transforme en qualité, permettant ce changement qualitatif qui est un bond évolutif, une révolution radicale brutale.</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3895" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3895</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2453" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2453</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article531" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article531</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article9" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article9</a></p> <p>Plus généralement, il existe une intelligence dialectique du Vivant.</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4421" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4421</a></p> <p>Le développement inégal et combiné du Vivant qui a produit l'homme est dialectique</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2911" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2911</a></p> <p>La dialectique de la pensée humaine est le produit d'une dialectique réelle, celle du neurone, celle des réseaux neuronaux, celle des deux hémisphères cérébraux…</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1510" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1510</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5106" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5106</a></p> <h2 class="spip">L'intelligence humaine a procédé, pour se construire, par négations dialectiques révolutionnaires successives</h2> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la relation corps-cerveau (et de la relation entre monde extérieur et pensée)</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5420" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5420</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'objectif et du subjectif</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?breve475" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?breve475</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'inhibition</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4388" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4388</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1121" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1121</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la conscience humaine</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5966" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5966</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4170" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4170</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5377" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5377</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article357" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article357</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, du langage et de la pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4003" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4003</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3491" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3491</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3187" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3187</a></p> <p>La relation dialectique de l'instinct et de l'acquis</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2612" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2612</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'intelligence humaine</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1510" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1510</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1627" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1627</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, du travail et de la pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article509" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article509</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'abstraction</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2494" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2494</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique psychanalytique</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article868" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article868</a></p> <p><a 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external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2754</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2700" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2700</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, du concept</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2594" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2594</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4140" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4140</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5618" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5618</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'activité et du mode relationnel des chasseurs-cueilleurs et de leur pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3364" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3364</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3219" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3219</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la taille de la pierre et de la pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6424" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6424</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la peinture des grottes et de la pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5139" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5139</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la domestication de l'animal et de la pensée</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4011" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4011</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, du mythe</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6511" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6511</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3916" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3916</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6915" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6915</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3980" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3980</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de la fable</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1528" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1528</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5225" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5225</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, du conte</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6842" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6842</a></p> <p> La négation dialectique, destructrice et fondatrice, de la relation homme-femme</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5326" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5326</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5248" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5248</a></p> <p>C'est déjà une dialectique révolutionnaire qui a fondé les espèces dont l'homme</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5491" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5491</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5673" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5673</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article50" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article50</a></p> <p>La négation dialectique révolutionnaire, destructrice et fondatrice, de l'espèce homo</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3908" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3908</a></p> <p>Dialectique des sauts du neurone</p> <p><a href="https://matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1194" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1194</a></p> <p>Dialectique des réseaux neuronaux du cerveau</p> <p><a href="https://www.crnl.fr/fr/taxonomy/term/40" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.crnl.fr/fr/taxonomy/term/40</a></p> <p>Le dialogue des deux hémisphères cérébraux</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2143" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article2143</a></p> <p>Dialectique constructrice-destructrice du cerveau</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1521" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1521</a></p> <p>Dialectique du cerveau</p> <p><a href="https://stm.cairn.info/darwin-200-ans--9782738125224-page-137?lang=fr" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://stm.cairn.info/darwin-200-ans--9782738125224-page-137?lang=fr</a></p> <p>Cerveau et négation</p> <p><a href="https://psycho-therapie-toulouse.fr/quand-le-cerveau-nentend-pas/" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://psycho-therapie-toulouse.fr/quand-le-cerveau-nentend-pas/</a></p> <p>La dialectique du réel, du rationnel et… de l'imaginaire, de l'irrationnel…</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1528" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1528</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?rubrique165" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?rubrique165</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4929" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article4929</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5670" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5670</a></p></div> Lire G.W.F. Hegel sans abonnement, sans inscription, intégralement et gratuitement en ligne http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8472 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8472 2024-11-23T23:41:00Z text/html fr Robert Paris Dialectic - Dialectique Hegel <p>Lire G.W.F. Hegel sans abonnement, sans inscription, intégralement et gratuitement en ligne <br class='autobr' /> La Raison dans l'Histoire <br class='autobr' /> https://books.google.fr/books?id=59RdmqkpgpMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hegel+la+raison+dans+l%27histoire&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig1aH4lZblAhULFRQKHeLRAaAQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=hegel%20la%20raison%20dans%20l'histoire&f=false <br class='autobr' /> http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique17" rel="directory">Chapter 12 : Philosophical annexes - Annexes philosophiques</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag">Dialectic - Dialectique</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><h2 class="spip">Lire G.W.F. Hegel sans abonnement, sans inscription, intégralement et gratuitement en ligne</h2> <p>La Raison dans l'Histoire</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=59RdmqkpgpMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hegel+la+raison+dans+l%27histoire&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig1aH4lZblAhULFRQKHeLRAaAQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=hegel%20la%20raison%20dans%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=59RdmqkpgpMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hegel+la+raison+dans+l%27histoire&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig1aH4lZblAhULFRQKHeLRAaAQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=hegel%20la%20raison%20dans%20l</a>'histoire&f=false</p> <p><a href="http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://palimpsestes.fr/textes_philo/hegel/La-raison-dans-l-histoire.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_raison_dans_l_Histoire/59RdmqkpgpMC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_raison_dans_l_Histoire/59RdmqkpgpMC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'Esprit</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/8t6oEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/8t6oEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome I</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l</a>'esprit%20(T1).pdf</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/knmnn0B5QPgC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A9nologie_de_l_esprit/knmnn0B5QPgC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Phénoménologie de l'esprit tome II</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20La%20phenomenologie%20de%20l</a>'esprit%20(T2).pdf</p> <p>Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Le%c3%a7ons%20sur%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Le%c3%a7ons%20sur%20l</a>'histoire%20de%20la%20philosophie.pdf</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/G_W_F_Hegel_Lecons_Sur_l_Histoire_de_la/5fKX2IvlUKEC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/G_W_F_Hegel_Lecons_Sur_l_Histoire_de_la/5fKX2IvlUKEC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Science de la logique</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel_science_logique.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel_science_logique.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome I</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1863-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome1-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1863-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome1-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome II</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1864-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome2-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1864-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome2-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature, tome III</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1866-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome3-traduit_par_Vera.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/Hegel1866-Philosophie_de_la_nature-Tome3-traduit_par_Vera.pdf</a></p> <p>Philosophie de la nature</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=w4CNDKsNUckC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFs4Le_8nKAhUMSRoKHbj-CE4Q6AEISDAH#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=w4CNDKsNUckC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFs4Le_8nKAhUMSRoKHbj-CE4Q6AEISDAH#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p>Logique tome I</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/DmfGcFChSaoC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/DmfGcFChSaoC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Logique time II</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/YN9cNb2w77IC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=logique+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Logique_de_Hegel/YN9cNb2w77IC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=logique+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Philosophie de l'Esprit</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=-is6Y4h8fN8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=-is6Y4h8fN8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit/-is6Y4h8fN8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit/-is6Y4h8fN8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Philosophie_de_l_esprit_de_H%C3%A9gel_1/BRkWs2zaiVQC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Esthétique</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=kDIRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIOjAC#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=kDIRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEIOjAC#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p><a href="http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/hegel/esthetique_1/esthetique_1.html" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/hegel/esthetique_1/esthetique_1.html</a></p> <p>Principes de la philosophie du droit</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL-Principes-de-La-Philosophie-Du-Droit-Jean-Hyppolite-Paris-1940-1989.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL-Principes-de-La-Philosophie-Du-Droit-Jean-Hyppolite-Paris-1940-1989.pdf</a><br class='autobr' /> <a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Principes%20de%20la%20philosophie%20du%20droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="http://philotextes.info/spip/IMG/pdf/hegel_-_principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://philotextes.info/spip/IMG/pdf/hegel_-_principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit.pdf</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit/9yGpEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Principes_de_la_philosophie_du_droit/9yGpEAAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Le droit naturel</p> <p><a href="https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://funambule.org/lectures/philo/HEGEL%20-%20Science%20de%20la%20logique%20-%20la%20logique%20subjective%20ou%20doctrine%20du%20concept%20%5bTome%20II%5d,%20Paris,%20Aubier%20Montaigne,%201981.pdf</a></p> <p>Leçons sur l'histoire de la philosophie</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=Fdiffz7XjRUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hegel+le%C3%A7ons+sur+l%27histoire+de+la+philosophie&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=9_AnVfr5A8vTUbvagKgB&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hegel%20le%C3%A7ons%20sur%20l" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=Fdiffz7XjRUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hegel+le%C3%A7ons+sur+l%27histoire+de+la+philosophie&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=9_AnVfr5A8vTUbvagKgB&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hegel%20le%C3%A7ons%20sur%20l</a>'histoire%20de%20la%20philosophie&f=false</p> <p><a href="https://archive.org/details/HEGELHISTOIREPHILOSOPHIE1954/page/n1/mode/2up" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://archive.org/details/HEGELHISTOIREPHILOSOPHIE1954/page/n1/mode/2up</a></p> <p>Encyclopédie des sciences philosophiques</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article6532</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3604</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Encyclop%C3%A9die_des_sciences_philosophique/OWiV5ahVy2kC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Encyclop%C3%A9die_des_sciences_philosophique/OWiV5ahVy2kC?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Propédeutique philosophique</p> <p><a href="https://sites.cvm.qc.ca/encephi/contenu/textes/hegel.htm" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://sites.cvm.qc.ca/encephi/contenu/textes/hegel.htm</a></p> <p>Idées philosophiques</p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1048" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1048</a></p> <p>Science de la logique</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3462" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article3462</a></p> <p>Religion</p> <p><a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=z1B5kGP4CqYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEISjAE#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://books.google.fr/books?id=z1B5kGP4CqYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=friedrich+hegel&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlm6e_lJblAhXHzYUKHRhMBCIQ6AEISjAE#v=onepage&q=friedrich%20hegel&f=false</a></p> <p>La logique subjective</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_logique_subjective/-8RIZOawG58C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/La_logique_subjective/-8RIZOawG58C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Premiers écrits</p> <p><a href="https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Premiers_%C3%A9crits/cL-fR5s98H8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Premiers_%C3%A9crits/cL-fR5s98H8C?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=friedrich+hegel&printsec=frontcover</a></p> <p>Résumé</p> <p><a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3737</a></p> <p>Lire encore</p> <p><a href="http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?mot169" class="spip_url spip_out auto" rel="nofollow external">http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?mot169</a></p></div> Pourquoi le NPA-révolutionnaires s'intéresse à la dialectique de Hegel ? http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8957 http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8957 2024-08-25T11:17:24Z text/html fr Alex Dialectic - Dialectique Hegel <p>Introduction <br class='autobr' /> Dans le très volumineux article Point de vue : Lénine 1914-1916, de la dialectique de Hegel à la révolution permanente, article que nous proposons de commenter, le NPA-révolutionnaires (NPA-R) aborde la question de la dialectique à l'occasion des 100 ans de la mort de Lénine, en lien avec les questions de la révolution permanente et du révisionnisme de Bernstein. <br class='autobr' /> Précisons que nos critiques sont adressées à un article qui est l'expression d'une politique du NPA-R et n'ont (…)</p> - <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique113" rel="directory">12 - QUOI DE NEUF DANS LES ORGANISATIONS REVOLUTIONNAIRES - WHAT'S NEW UPON REVOLUTIONNARY ORGANISATIONS</a> / <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot60" rel="tag">Dialectic - Dialectique</a>, <a href="http://matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot169" rel="tag">Hegel</a> <div class='rss_texte'><p><strong>Introduction</strong></p> <p>Dans le très volumineux article <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/lenine-1914-1916-de-la-dialectique-de-hegel-a-la-revolution-permanente/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Point de vue : Lénine 1914-1916, de la dialectique de Hegel à la révolution permanente</a>, article que nous proposons de commenter, le NPA-révolutionnaires (NPA-R) aborde la question de la <i>dialectique</i> à l'occasion des 100 ans de la mort de Lénine, en lien avec les questions de la <i>révolution permanente</i> et du <i>révisionnisme</i> de Bernstein.</p> <p><strong>Précisons que nos critiques sont adressées à un article qui est l'expression d'une politique du NPA-R et n'ont rien de personnel, même si nous utiliserons souvent le raccourci « l'auteur » pour désigner cet article.</strong></p> <p>Tout marxiste qui se respecte est l'adversaire du révisionnisme de Bernstein, est partisan du matérialisme dialectique et de la théorie de la révolution permanente, cette dernière s'appliquant à des questions d'actualité comme la Palestine, le Bangladesh etc.</p> <p>Tout militant marxiste peut commencer sa formation sur ces questions en lisant et relisant le <i>Manifeste du Parti Communiste</i> (Marx et Engels) ainsi que <a href="https://www.marxists.org/francais/luxembur/works/1898/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Réforme ou Révolution</a> de R. Luxemburg, où les divers textes que Plékhanov a écrits contre Bernstein.</p> <p>Indépendamment de la question de Bernstein, tous les ouvrages de R. Luxemburg ainsi que ceux de Plékhanov font partie des lectures incontournables pour qui veut une formation marxiste poussée.</p> <p>La lecture de <i>Réforme et Révolution</i>, d'<i><a href="https://www.marxists.org/francais/plekhanov/works/1895/00/plekhanov_18950000.htm" class="spip_out" rel="external">Essai sur le développement de la conception moniste de l'histoire</i></a>, de <a href="https://www.marxists.org/francais/plekhanov/works/1904/00/plekhanov_19040000.htm" class="spip_out" rel="external"><i>La conception matérialiste de l'histoire</i></a> de Plékhanov sont des étapes de base dans une formation.</p> <p>En conséquence, dénigrer, comme le fait notre auteur dans un article sur Bernstein, les écrits de R. Luxemburg et Plékhanov, qui furent les champions de la lutte contre ce révisionniste, est inacceptable.</p> <p>Les articles qui dénigrent Plékhanov, Lénine, R. Luxemburg font partie de la littérature anti-marxiste. C'est le cas de l'article du NPA-R, il mérite donc une réponse en défense du marxisme, de R. Luxemburg, Plékhanov, Lénine et Engels qui sont tous attaqués par l'auteur.</p> <p>Certes il existe un type de littérature marxiste qui est très critique. Mais lorsque tous ces auteurs marxistes cités se sont critiqués entre eux, ils le faisaient en précisant d'abord qu'ils considéraient leurs adversaires comme des camarades qui méritaient le titre de dirigeant marxiste révolutionnaire. L'article que nous critiquons ne fait pas partie de cette littérature marxiste critique, expliquons pourquoi.</p> <p><strong>Un article typique du centrisme</strong></p> <p>L'article en question du NPA-R n'a, à notre avis, malheureusement aucun intérêt majeur en lui même. Son seul intérêt secondaire est d'être la n-ième manifestation du pseudo-marxisme d'un parti centriste, dont la mission est de faire croire que les marxistes seraient eux-mêmes les premiers à dénigrer Marx, Lénine, Trotsky, R. Luxemburg etc. C'est seulement dans cette perspective que cet article a un quelconque intérêt, car on est malheureusement confrontés en permanence à cette propagande centriste, il faut en comprendre les mécanismes.</p> <p>C'est la mission de la propagande centriste (qui permet à des partis comme les NPA ou LO d'apparaitre dans les grands media), d'attirer la jeunesse où les travailleurs qui seraient intéressés par le marxisme ... pour les en détourner tout de suite !</p> <p>L'article du NPA-R fait partie de ces articles qui sont faits pour décourager les militants souhaitant étudier les questions fondamentales du marxisme. Expliquons-nous : l'auteur fait semblant d'être marxiste, mais dénigre Engels, Lénine, Plékhanov, R. Luxemburg, en essayant d'utiliser les écrits des uns contre ceux des autres. Bernstein est le seul qui n'y est finalement quasiment pas critiqué ! C'est compréhensible, car Bernstein par exemple rejeta la dictature du prolétariat, le NPA-R est en accord avec lui sur ce point. Donnons des précisions sur le « programme » du NPA-R.</p> <p><strong>Le NPA-révolutionnaires n'est plus marxiste, ni léniniste ni trotskiste</strong></p> <p>La première question qui se pose face à un tel article est : pourquoi le NPA-R s'intéresse-t-il à Lénine, Bernstein, la question de la dialectique ? De quel point de vue écrit le NPA-R ? Le NPA-R est-il partisan du marxisme, du trotskisme ? La réponse est clairement non !</p> <p>En 2009 lors de sa création le NPA s'est débarrassé dans son nom du qualificatif de "communiste révolutionnaire" en dissolvant la Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire.</p> <p>En 2022 le NPA-révolutionnaires est issu d'une scission de ce NPA. Ce NPA-Révolutionnaires n'est pas revenu en 2022 sur la question de la rupture avec le marxisme, le trotskisme, faite en 2009, puisque le NPA-R proclame haut et fort vouloir continuer ce NPA.</p> <p>Sur le site de ce nouveau parti, dans la rubrique <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/a-propos/" class="spip_out" rel="external">A propos</a>, qui est la page où ce parti se présente, on lit une "Déclaration du congrès du NPA (11 décembre 2022)" qui ne fait référence ni au communisme, encore moins au trotskisme ou au marxisme, ni à la révolution prolétarienne : "Le NPA s'est toujours conçu comme un pôle de regroupement des révolutionnaires, vers un parti révolutionnaire des travailleurs. Et des travailleuses."</p> <p>Le NPA-R ne mentionne même pas explicitement l'Anticapitalisme, bien que tenant à garder ce terme fourre-tout dans son nom.</p> <p>Certes des non marxistes peuvent écrire des choses très intéressantes sur le marxisme. Mais d'un parti qui comme le NPA-R, lors de ses deux congrès fondateurs (2009, 2022 pour le NPA-R) se débarrasse de toute référence au marxisme, on est en droit d'attendre un éclaircissement. Car <i>a priori</i> les articles théoriques publiés par ce parti sont fondamentalement hostiles au marxisme, même masqués par les formules faussement amicales du centrisme</p> <p><strong>Un article publié avec la caution sans restrictions du NPA-R</strong></p> <p>L'auteur précise à propos de son article :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Rédigé à l'occasion du centenaire de la mort de Lénine, cet article n'a pas prétention à exprimer le point de vue de toute l'organisation, et encore moins de clore une discussion qui a préoccupé le marxisme depuis des décennies. Discussion qu'il prétend simplement poursuivre et à laquelle il souhaite apporter une contribution.</p> </blockquote> <p>mais on ne sait toujours pas si lui-même se situe dans ce "marxisme" qu'il mentionne. Qui ne dit mot consent, l'auteur est donc <i>a priori</i>, comme son parti, en dehors du marxisme, du trotskisme. Mais pour un lecteur non averti, l'auteur est "évidemment" marxiste, tout comme le parti qui publie son article. C'est une entourloupe classique du centrisme.</p> <p>Certes une organisation peut publier des textes qu'elle ne soutient pas entièrement, mais pour un texte qui va ouvertement contre ceux du <i>corpus</i> marxiste de base, un avertissement devrait être ajouté. Par exemple sur Matière et Révolution nous proposerions de signaler : <i>le texte suivant ne nous engage pas, il est l'expression d'un militant avec qui nous sommes en complet désaccord sur ce texte, qui va à notre avis à l'encontre des principes de base du marxisme. Mais le camarade ayant souhaité ouvrir une discussion sur la dialectique, nous publions ce texte pour ouvrir la discussion</i></p> <p>En l'absence d'un tel avertissement, le texte que nous allons commenter apparait bien comme un texte diffusé par le NPA-R, d'autant plus qu'il semble servir de support à une discussion des <i>2èmes rencontres révolutionnaires</i> du NPA-R (voir débats et ateliers « centenaire de la mort de Lénine, 1914-1916, de Hegel à la révolution permanente », dimanche 25 août, <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/programme-des-rencontres-dete-revolutionnaires-2024/" class="spip_out" rel="external">ici</a>)<br class='autobr' /> Passons au commentaire.</p> <p><strong>Le pédantisme académique</strong></p> <p>Le point de vue de l'auteur n'est pas un point de vue militant. Le début de l'article est un charabia incompréhensible :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p>On s'excusera aussi des sources purement franco-françaises de cet article. Car la discussion n'est ni nouvelle ni française. La thèse d'une rupture entre le Lénine d'avant et après 1916 est envisagée dès les années 50 par James et Dunayeskaya (alias Johnson et Forest dans le SWP américain) ; la continuité est défendue entre les polémiques sur l'Empiriocriticisme jusqu'à L'État et la révolution par Slaughter du SLL puis WRP anglais, continuité aujourd'hui à la mode avec les derniers travaux de Lars Lih. (L. B.)]</p> </blockquote> <p>Des notes renvoient à des textes en anglais, aucune référence n'est donnée à propos des "derniers travaux de Lars Lih" qui semblent illustrer la "continuité" qui serait "à la mode". Quelle pédanterie semi-universitaire ! Les "derniers travaux" sont-ils des travaux militants ayant des conséquences dans la politique d'un parti ou d'un syndicat face à un mouvement ? Si vous n'avez jamais entendu parler de Lars Lih alors qu'il est "à la mode" (où ? dans les salons universitaires ? dans des congrès de certains partis ?), vous êtes écrasés par cette énumération de noms qui devraient faire l'objet de paragraphes entier dans l'article, ou apparaitre seulement en note de bas de page.</p> <p>D'un point de vue militant, l'auteur devrait préciser : nous sommes d'accord avec tel texte, pas d'accord avec tel texte. Cela permettrait au moins au lecteur intéressé de s'y plonger en ayant une boussole, suivre l'historique de deux lignes de pensée après les avoir identifiées. Mais être sans avis sur une flopée de textes que l'on cite d'entrée est le style académique, par lequel on doit montrer dans l'introduction d'un article que l'on connait toute la bibliographie. Mais ce n'est pas le style d'un article militant.</p> <p>Surtout, l'auteur n'énonce pas clairement sa thèse dès le début : que Lénine opère une rupture en 1914, grâce à sa lecture de la Science de la Logique qui lui permet de découvrir la dialectique qu'il ignorait jusqu'en 1914. Mais que Lénine n'avait jamais vraiment compris combien la dialectique est à la base de la théorie de la révolution permanente.</p> <p>Cette thèse est fausse à notre avis. Mais elle permet à l'auteur, prétendant donner raison au Lénine de 1914-1916, de dénigrer celui d'avant 1914. C'est le but de ce genre d'articles.</p> <p>Au passage : si l'auteur à autant de références, pourquoi n'en donne-t-il aucune concernant l'anticapitalisme ? Le NPA se veut anticapitaliste, mais l'auteur ne nous dit pas en quoi sa discussion concerne l'anticapitalisme, et pas seulement "le marxisme".</p> <p>L'auteur ne fait que confirmer que ce terme "anticapitaliste" ne vaut rien du tout, pour lui autant que pour nous ! Aucun nom de militant anticapitaliste n'existe, voir les noms des salles de réunion du NPA-R <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/ProgrammeRER2024.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">ici</a></p> <p>Les journalistes peuvent ainsi faire des articles de presse à propos des "marxistes" qui n'en sont plus.</p> <p><strong>Le révisionnisme de Bernstein</strong></p> <p>Après son chapeau introductif, l'auteur introduit en cinq paragraphes la situation en 1914 : la trahison de la IIème internationale dont la plupart des organisations soutiennent l'Union sacrée.</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> La période qui mène Lénine de 1914 à 1916 est certes celle d'une bataille politique, sans précédent de fait dans l'histoire du mouvement ouvrier, et pour cela d'un travail théorique soutenant la lutte contre la guerre, contre le réformisme, pour une compréhension de l'impérialisme, sur la question de l'État. (... ) <br class='autobr' /> Comment des dirigeants internationaux de la stature de Kautsky ou Plekhanov ont-ils pu accepter, justifier et commettre une telle trahison ?</p> </blockquote> <p>Le reproche principal que l'on peut faire à l'auteur est de ne nommer que des "étrangers" qui ont trahi l'internationalisme : le français Jouhaux secrétaire général de la CGT est oublié. Seuls les syndicats allemands auraient trahi. C'est normal, le NPA-R ne mène aucune politique révolutionnaire dans les syndicats, et évite donc de parler de la CGT qui en 2024, est autant dans l'Union sacrée qu'en 1914.</p> <p>Puis l'auteur en vient au coeur de son sujet, la dialectique et le révisionnisme de Bernstein :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Édouard Bernstein lui-même, un an à peine après la mort de son maître Friedrich Engels a entrepris un examen critique et dévastateur du marxisme tout entier… En 1898, dans une série d'articles regroupés sous le titre Problèmes du socialisme, et qui ont finalement pris en 1899 la forme d'un livre, Socialisme théorique et sociale-démocratie pratique, que visiblement Lénine s'est procuré en août 1899, Bernstein s'est livré à une « déconstruction » avant l'heure du marxisme (c'est-à-dire une destruction en règle), sur tous ses présupposés théoriques</p> </blockquote> <p>L'auteur oublie d'ajouter : Bernstein théorise l'opportunisme, R. Luxemburg, Lénine et Plékhanov l'ont combattu. Ils eurent raison et leurs écrits nous servent encore pour combattre l'opportunisme dans le mouvement ouvrier, dont les spécimens parmi les pires sont par exemple aujourd'hui les bureaucraties syndicales.</p> <p>On ne saura jamais si l'auteur est un adversaire de Bernstein, s'il pense que l'opportunisme existe encore dans le mouvement ouvrier. De plus, non Bernstein n'a rien déconstruit, ses articles sont d'un très bas niveau, il est passé au socialisme bourgeois et a voulu le justifier, c'est tout.</p> <p>La première attaque contre Lénine, Trotsky et Luxemburg qui combattirent Bernstein ne tarde pas :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> cinq ans avant que Trotski ne l'aperçoive et quinze ans avant que Lénine ne le comprenne grâce à sa lecture de la Science de la logique de Hegel, c'est bien la dialectique hégélienne que Bernstein a accusé de constituer la logique de la « révolution permanente ».</p> <p>Ce défi, personne ne l'a relevé ni même parfois aperçu. Ni Rosa Luxembourg dans Réforme sociale ou révolution (qui ne s'intéresse pas à la dialectique ni à la « révolution permanente »), ni les commentateurs tardifs depuis Henri Lefèbvre jusqu'à Stathis Kouvélakis, en passant par Mickaël Löwy, ou Roger Garaudy (quelle que soit la funeste postérité négationniste de ce dernier), pour ne citer que ces commentateurs français, ni bien d'autres dans d'autres pays.</p> <p>Tous ont vu le tournant théorique opéré par Lénine de 1914 à 1916, dû à sa lecture de la Science de la logique de Hegel. Mais aucun, pas même aujourd'hui, n'a vu ou souhaité commenter le fond de la critique théorique de Bernstein établissant – à notre avis à juste titre – le lien essentiel entre « dialectique hégélienne » et « révolution permanente ».</p> </blockquote> <p>On est étonné par une telle "découverte" qui est au cœur de cet article.</p> <p>Car Bernstein, dans son chapitre II, cité par notre auteur, écrit explicitement ce que notre auteur prétend avoir été ignoré par tous depuis :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> « Le Manifeste communiste proclama, en 1847, “que la révolution bourgeoise à la veille de laquelle se trouve l'Allemagne, étant donnés le développement du prolétariat et l'état avancé de la civilisation européenne, ne pourra être que le prologue immédiat d'une révolution prolétarienne”. Cette autosuggestion historique digne du premier illuminé venu serait incompréhensible chez un Marx – qui à cette époque, avait déjà sérieusement étudié l'économie – si on ne l'analyse pas comme un reste de la dialectique antithétique hégélienne, dont Marx, pas plus qu'Engels, n'a jamais su complètement se défaire. »</p> <p>Bernstein</p> </blockquote> <p>Bernstein est très clair : dans son chapitre II il dénonce en long en large et en travers la théorie de la révolution permanente de Marx, sa théorie de la révolution en général, comme une conclusion erronée obtenue à cause de la dialectique de Hegel. Et c'est cela que notre auteur du NPA-R prétend avoir été resté invisible pendant plus d'un siècle ! Cela ne tient pas la route !</p> <p>L'auteur de l'article du NPA-R confirme lui-même que tout est dit clairement par Bernstein :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> le plus grand crime de la dialectique pour Bernstein est surtout d'arrimer au marxisme ce que d'autres appelleront plus tard, à la suite de Marx et Engels, la « révolution permanente ». En effet, il reproche à Engels d'avoir « reproduit, dans l'édition nouvelle des Révélations sur le procès des Communistes, les deux adresses de mars et de juin 1850, rédigées par Marx et lui, où la “révolution en permanence” est assignée au prolétariat révolutionnaire. » Concession, dit-il, d'Engels à l'anarchisme (ou au « blanquisme »), pourtant si bien combattu par lui dans le parti social-démocrate allemand et dans l'Internationale.</p> </blockquote> <p>Bernstein critique donc ouvertement la dialectique de Hegel, comme étant responsable des conceptions de Marx en matière de révolution en général, dans la question de la “révolution en permanence” en particulier.</p> <p>Mais admettons à la discussion le point de vue de l'auteur, qui attribue un grand aveuglement à Lénine, Trotsky, s'attribuant à lui-même une grande découverte.</p> <p>Passons aussi sur le fait qu'il est gênant de citer sur le même plan des marxistes qui restent nos maîtres (sont-ils ceux de l'auteur ?) : Lénine, Trotsky, R. Luxemburg, avec le stalinien antisémite Roger Garaudy. Et pourquoi ne pas rappeler en deux mots qui sont ces Stathis Kouvélakis (dont un échantillon du verbiage est <a href="http://revueperiode.net/lenine-lecteur-de-hegel/" class="spip_out" rel="external">ici</a>, où il accuse Lénine d'être un des responsables de la trahison de 1914 !) et Mickaël Löwy ? Pourquoi compliquer le problème en ajoutant des noms sans explications ?</p> <p>Faisons donc le point : nous avons trois grandes révélations en même temps : 1) personne, sur le moment, n'a vu que Berstein s'attaquait à la dialectique de Hegel (bien que Bernstein le fasse ouvertement dans son Chapitre II à propos de la "révolution en permanence" de Marx) 2) Lénine a opéré un tournant théorique entre 1914 et 1916 et a enfin compris la dialectique.<br class='autobr' /> 3) personne n'a vraiment vu le lien essentiel entre « dialectique hégélienne » et « révolution permanente » jusqu'à aujourd'hui : sous entendu même Lénine n'est pas allé assez loin dans cette direction, Trotsky l'a juste "aperçu"</p> <p> Le flou artistique est très gênant dans la critique de l'auteur : pourquoi ne donne-t-il pas pour Lénine et Trotsky la référence à des textes datés précisément, afin que l'on puisse lire ces textes où Trotksy et Lénine expliqueraient comment ils auraient "enfin compris". En quoi consiste vraiment le tournant théorique de Lénine ? Dans les dizaines de tomes de Lénine, dans quels textes Lénine est-il vraiment dialecticien, reniant certains de ses écrits d'avant 1914 ? Pourquoi Lénine n'a-t-il pas fait son auto-critique après sa "conversion de 1914-1916" ?</p> <p>A notre avis ni 1), ni 2) ni 3) ne tiennent la route.</p> <p><strong>Rosa Luxemburg avait très bien identifié Bernstein comme ennemi de la dialectique</strong></p> <p> Rappelons que l'auteur ose prétendre :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Ce défi, personne ne l'a relevé ni même parfois aperçu. Ni Rosa Luxembourg dans Réforme sociale ou révolution (qui ne s'intéresse pas à la dialectique ni à la « révolution permanente ») ...</p> </blockquote> <p>Or citons de Rosa Luxemburg la conclusion de son ouvrage consacré à la réfutation de Bernstein "Réforme et révolution" :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Bernstein a abandonné les catégories de pensée du prolétariat révolutionnaire, la dialectique et la conception matérialistes de l'histoire</p> <p>R. Luxemburg <a href="https://www.marxists.org/francais/luxembur/works/1898/r_ou_r2_5.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Réforme ou révolution</a></p> </blockquote> <p>Mais l'auteur du NPA-R affirme quand même que R. Luxemburg "ne s'intéresse pas à la dialectique". Au passage l'auteur sous-entend : R. Luxemburg n'a rien compris au marxisme ! Nous sommes au coeur de ces articles écrits sur le marxisme par les deux NPA : leur but est de mettre à la poubelle Lénine, Trotsky, Plékhanov et R. Luxemburg, sans s'attaquer frontalement à eux, mais au détour de certaines phrases.</p> <p>"Réforme et Révolution" est un des premiers ouvrages que l'on donne à un militant souhaitant se former. C'est un ouvrage que tout marxiste digne de ce nom a sous le bras en permanence, car dès qu'une trahison syndicale, opportuniste, a lieu, on peut s'y replonger pour trouver la formule dont on a besoin.</p> <p>L'auteur de cet article ne l'affirme pas. Il pourrait expliquer que R. Luxemburg dans sa réfutation de Bernstien n'a pas assez insisté sur la dialectique mais que <i>Réforme et révolution</i> reste un ouvrage de référence pour nous marxistes. Mais l'auteur, en prétendant émettre des critiques à propos d'une problème très particulier, détourne de "Réforme et révolution" tout militant qui voudrait se former, en dénigrant ce livre et R. Luxemburg</p> <p><strong>R. Luxemburg parlait bien de la Révolution permanente</strong></p> <p>L'idée de Marx et Engels derrière la "révolution en permanence" est que toute révolution bourgeoise, avec l'irruption du prolétariat d'industrie (qui n'avait pu avoir lieu en 1789 en France), portera en germe la révolution prolétarienne, ne s'arrêtera donc pas avec la victoire bourgeoise sur le féodalisme, mais continuera en permanence à se transformer en révolution prolétarienne. L'ère des révolutions prolétariennes est ouverte. Les militants communistes doivent en permanence expliquer ce but final. Car toute révolution bourgeoise sera le début d'une transition entre la révolution bourgeoise et la révolution prolétarienne.</p> <p>Concernant la révolution permanente qui est un mécanisme de transition, R. Luxemburg, à notre avis, en parle très bien dans son ouvrage, même si c'est sans reprendre le terme. Un des nombreux exemples est :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Formulation globale de l'évolution historique du capitalisme, notre programme doit également décrire dans leurs traits fondamentaux toutes les phases transitoires de ce développement, et donc orienter à chaque instant l'attitude du prolétariat dans le sens d'une marche vers le socialisme. On peut donc conclure qu'il n'existe aucune circonstance où le prolétariat serait contraint d'abandonner son programme, ou d'être abandonné par lui.</p> <p>Concrètement, cela veut dire qu'il n'y a aucun moment où le prolétariat, porté au pouvoir par les circonstances, ne puisse, ou ne soit tenu de prendre certaines mesures en vue de réaliser son programme, des mesures de transition vers le socialisme. Affirmer que le programme socialiste pourrait se révéler impuissant à une phase quelconque de la prise du pouvoir et incapable de donner des directives en vue de sa réalisation, revient à affirmer que le programme socialiste est, d'une manière générale et de tout temps, irréalisable.</p> <p>Mais si les mesures transitoires sont prématurées ?</p> <p>Cette objection révèle une série de malentendus quant à la nature réelle et au déroulement de la révolution sociale. Premier malentendu : la prise du pouvoir politique par le prolétariat, c'est-à-dire par une grande classe populaire, ne se fait pas artificiellement. Sauf en certains cas exceptionnels - tels que la Commune de Paris, où le prolétariat n'a pas obtenu le pouvoir au terme d'une lutte consciente, mais où le pouvoir lui est échu comme un bien dont personne ne veut plus - la prise du pouvoir politique implique une situation politique et économique parvenue à un certain degré de maturité. C'est là toute la différence entre des coups d'Etat de style blanquiste, accomplis par " une minorité agissante ", déclenchés à n'importe quel moment, et en fait, toujours inopportunément, et la conquête du pouvoir politique par la grande masse populaire consciente ; une telle conquête ne peut être que le produit de la décomposition de la société bourgeoise ; elle porte donc en elle-même la justification économique et politique de son opportunité.</p> <p>Si l'on considère les conditions sociales de la conquête du pouvoir, la révolution ne peut donc se produire prématurément ; si elle est prématurée, c'est du point de vue des conséquences politiques lorsqu'il s'agit de conserver le pouvoir.</p> <p>La révolution prématurée, dont le spectre hante les nuits de Bernstein, menaçante comme une épée de Damoclès, ne peut être conjurée par aucune prière, aucune supplication, toutes les transes et toutes les angoisses sont impuissantes à cet égard. Et cela pour deux raisons très simples.</p> <p>Tout d'abord un bouleversement aussi formidable que le passage de la société capitaliste à la société socialiste ne peut se produire d'un bond, par un coup de main heureux du prolétariat. L'imaginer, c'est faire preuve encore une fois de conceptions résolument blanquistes. La révolution socialiste implique une lutte longue et opiniâtre au cours de laquelle, selon toute probabilité, le prolétariat aura le dessous plus d'une fois ; si l'on regarde le résultat final de la lutte globale, sa première attaque aura donc été prématurée : il sera parvenu trop tôt au pouvoir.</p> <p>Or - et c'est là le deuxième point - cette conquête " prématurée " du pouvoir politique est inévitable, parce que ces attaques prématurées du prolétariat constituent un facteur, et même un facteur très important, créant les conditions politiques de la victoire définitive : en effet, ce n'est qu'au cours de la crise politique qui accompagnera la prise du pouvoir, au cours de longues luttes opiniâtres, que le prolétariat acquerra le degré de maturité politique lui permettant d'obtenir la victoire définitive de la révolution. Ainsi ces assauts " prématurés " du prolétariat contre le pouvoir d'Etat sont eux-mêmes des facteurs historiques importants, contribuant à provoquer et à déterminer le moment de la victoire définitive. De ce point de vue l'idée d'une conquête " prématurée " du pouvoir politique par les travailleurs apparaît comme un contre-sens politique, contre-sens dû à une conception mécanique de l'évolution de la société ; une telle conception suppose pour la victoire de la lutte des classes un moment fixé en dehors et indépendamment de la lutte des classes.</p> <p>Or, nous avons vu que le prolétariat ne peut faire autrement que de s'emparer " prématurément " du pouvoir politique, ou, en d'autres termes, il ne peut que le conquérir une ou plusieurs fois trop tôt pour parvenir enfin à sa conquête définitive ; de ce fait, s'opposer à une conquête " prématurée " du pouvoir, revient à s'opposer, en général, à l'aspiration du prolétariat à s'emparer du pouvoir d'Etat.</p> <p>R. Luxemburg <a href="https://www.marxists.org/francais/luxembur/works/1898/r_ou_r2_3.html" class="spip_out" rel="external">Réforme ou révolution</a></p> </blockquote> <p>N'est-ce pas la "révolution en permanence" qui est décrite ? Le contraire de la révolution par étape ?<br class='autobr' /> Même si ce n'est pas le cas, y a-t-il dans "Réforme et révolution" un seul passage intéressant ? L'auteur du NPA-R n'en mentionne aucun.</p> <p>L'auteur sait pourtant conseiller des ouvrages, par exemples ceux d'un Marcello Musto, un universitaire :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Le débat est restitué dans un ouvrage passionnant de Marcello MUSTO, Les dernières années de Karl Marx. Une biographie intellectuelle 1881-1883, trad. A. Burlaud éd. PUF, paru en Français en 2023, dans lequel celui-ci traite de la « révolution permanente », mais « sans la nommer » comme dirait le poète, et donc sans identifier complètement le problème. De sorte qu'il croit pouvoir retourner les positions de Marx contre la méthode dialectique (à laquelle il ne connaît pas grand-chose), alors qu'elles n'en sont que la parfaite confirmation. Ce sont les deux seuls défauts de ce livre, dont on recommande donc la lecture !</p> </blockquote> <p>Citons un extrait du verbiage anticapitaliste de ce Marcello Musto :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> La barbarie de « l'ordre mondial » en vigueur, les désastres écologiques provoqués<br class='autobr' /> par le mode de production actuel, l'inacceptable fossé entre la richesse d'une minorité d'exploiteurs et l'état d'indigence de couches de plus en plus grandes de la population, l'oppression sexuelle, les nouveaux vents de guerre, de racisme et de chauvinisme, imposent au mouvement ouvrier d'aujourd'hui de se réorganiser, avec urgence, à partir de deux caractéristiques de l'internationale : la collégialité de sa structure et la radicalité des objectifs à atteindre. Les résolutions de l'organisation née à Londres il y a cent cinquante ans sont aujourd'hui plus pertinentes que jamais. mais, pour être à la hauteur des défis actuels, la nouvelle internationale ne pourra se soustraire à deux exigences fondamentales : elle devra être plurielle et anticapitaliste</p> </blockquote> <p>Quel jargon centriste ! <br class='autobr' /> Entre R. Luxemburg et Musto , nous nous permettons de préférer la première !</p> <p><strong>Conclusion partielle</strong></p> <p>Après avoir jeté à la poubelle "Réforme et révolution" de R. Luxemburg, l'auteur s'en prend à Plékhanov, Lénine et Engels.</p> <p>1) Plékhanov, avec R. Luxemburg le champion de la lutte contre Bernstein, aurait en fait été d'accord avec Bernstein, sur des points que notre auteur oublie malheureusement de préciser :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> si Kautsky ou Plekhanov répondent à Bernstein, traité d'« hérétique » et d'« apostat » au congrès de Hanovre (1899), ils sont en fait d'accord avec lui sur bien des arguments décisifs. De fait, il n'est pas exclu du parti.</p> </blockquote> <p>(rappelons que Plékhanov n'était pas membre du Parti social démocrate allemand, comment aurait-il pu exclure Bernstein ?) Nous reviendrons sur cette affirmation farfelue.</p> <p>2) Face à Bernstein, Lénine aurait paniqué :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p> Lénine ne lit finalement l'ouvrage de Bernstein qu'en août 1899. Loin de la lutte, atterré, « il se morfond, ne dort plus, maigrit ». De fait, il n'a pas vraiment lu Hegel, ni en 1894 pour répondre aux populistes, et en particulier à Mikhaïlovski, ce qui ne l'empêche pas de défendre la dialectique, même maladroitement, en ne se référant qu'à Marx et Engels sur une douzaine de pages, ni même – ce qui est plus ennuyeux – en 1908, pour répondre à Bogdanov dans Matérialisme et empiriocriticisme.</p> </blockquote> <p>En rédigeant "Matérialisme et empiriocriticisme" :</p> <blockquote class="spip"> <p>Lénine se bat, se débat, mais souvent se répète et s'embourbe<br class='autobr' /> … Il ne parvient à combattre l'objectivité des sciences que par une forme de « relativité » ou d'« approximation » historiques, renvoyant au progrès infini des sciences l'objectivité absolue. Corrélat prétendu « matérialiste » d'une métaphysique de la « chose en soi » kantienne, dont la dialectique hégélienne puis marxiste (si tant est qu'on puisse faire la différence) s'était pourtant débarrassée.<br class='autobr' /> (...) « Matérialiste », Lénine n'a pourtant pas de concept de « matière », il ne la définit que comme l'existence infinie de la nature « en dehors de nous » : « Car le concept de matière ne signifie […] que ceci : la réalité objective indépendamment de la conscience humaine qui la réfléchit. » Il confond ainsi idéalisme et « abstraction », « matérialisme » et « objectivité » (celle précisément que revendique « la Science » depuis Kant… contre le marxisme).</p> <p>Dans Matérialisme et empiriocriticisme, Lénine ressuscite donc malgré lui cette « chose en soi » qui se cacherait derrière les phénomènes, comme garantie de leur objectivité…</p> <p>(...)</p> <p>Pire encore, reprenant la formule malheureuse d'Engels, il ne conçoit donc les sciences et les idées que comme un « reflet »48, une imitation, une « approximation » de la réalité matérielle. Une espèce d'idéalisme platonicien inversé, ignorant ce que Hegel, Marx, et aussi Engels, connaissent sous le nom de la dialectique de la « réflexion » (et non du « reflet » !) tirée de la Science de la logique, fondement du matérialisme marxiste et notamment de sa conception de la « pratique » comme on va le voir. Autant de concessions que Hegel aurait dénoncées comme une contravention au rationnel, et Marx au matérialisme dialectique.</p> </blockquote> <p>Utiliser Hegel et Marx contre Lénine !</p> <p>A-t-on affaire à un échantillon de la <a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article8898" class="spip_out" rel="external">Pensée Mao Zedong</a> qui sévit dans les deux NPAs ? Ou Lénine, qui n'aurait pas lu Hegel avant 1914, commit-il tant d'erreurs ?</p> <p>En tout cas c'est à un véritable anti-léninisme que l'auteur se livre, prétendant utiliser Lénine contre lui-même, méthode préférée du centrisme.</p> <p>L'auteur n'a aucun mot aussi dur contre Bernstein, son article est bien plus contre Plékhanov, R. Luxemburg et Lénine, nos maîtres en marxisme, que contre Bernstein.<br class='autobr' /> Nous y reviendrons dans un prochain article.</p> <p>Pour conclure temporairement, signalons que le même auteur est l'auteur d'un autre <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/lenine-contre-staline-letat-sans-revolution/" class="spip_out" rel="external">article</a> beaucoup moins hostile à Lénine, bien que là encore, la responsabilité des opportunistes français (en particulier CGT) dans la dégénérescence de l'URSS est effacée. Mais ce qui est commun avec le texte que nous commentons, c'est que pour cet auteur, bon représentant du NPA-R et du centrisme en général, discuter de Lénine et Trotsky, de l'histoire du marxisme, n'a aucun rapport avec le présent. Par exemple notre auteur oublie les concepts de lutte de classes, de réformisme, d'opportunisme pour discuter le <a href="https://npa-revolutionnaires.org/nouveau-front-populaire-un-programme-pas-si-populaire-que-ca/" class="spip_out" rel="external">programme du NFP</a>.</p> <p>Pour le NPA-R, le marxisme sert à décorer les jours de fêtes, mais ne nourrit pas la propagande ni l'agitation quotidienne !</p> <p>Suite au prochain épisode</p></div>